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Abstract This chapter provides an overview of the linguistic considerations involved in digital approaches to working with ancient texts at various stages in the preparation and analysis of data: the creation of corpora, lemmatization and PoS (Part of Speech) tagging, and syntactic annotation and treebanking. The fragmentary and uncertain nature of much of our evidence for ancient languages, including Latin and Ancient Greek, provides particular challenges for linguists, who must take into account inconsistency and uncertainty at every stage of working with ancient linguistic data, from the creation of a corpus to syntactic analysis. Some of these difficulties are magnified by the limitations of computational methods, but digital tools can successfully overcome other problems.
Official style has a significant function in administrative, legal, diplomatic, and institutional communication. This research explores the semantic, grammatical, and functional aspects of official style in English and Uzbek languages. Through comparative linguistic analysis, the study determines both similarities and differences in structural organization, lexical choice, and pragmatic features. The results reveal that both languages demonstrate common characteristics such as formality, accuracy, and standardization, while variations are observed in syntactic patterns, terminology, and cultural norms. This research enhances the understanding of official discourse from a cross-linguistic perspective.
Language development does not end with the attainment of native-speaker status. Across later childhood, adolescence, and even into adulthood, individuals continue to refine, reorganize, and expand the linguistic and multimodal resources that enable them to participate effectively in the diverse discursive practices that shape educational trajectories, social relationships, and active participation in different communicative contexts. While early language acquisition has been extensively described, far less is known about how speakers move from basic native-like communicative competence to the sophisticated, contextsensitive, and socially anchored uses of language that characterise proficient discourse practices. This special issue brings together seven original studies that address this shift by examining discursive practices in later language development (LLD) across linguistic, cognitive, socio-cultural, pragmatic, and affective dimensions.Our starting point is the observation that children who have mastered the sound system, grammar, and lexicon of their language are not yet fully proficient communicators. They still need to learn to navigate a range of discourse domains: constructing arguments in writing, managing peer interaction, interpreting and generating figurative language, integrating multimodal cues, understanding feedback as dialogue, and coordinating language with social expectations and interpersonal dynamics. Developing proficiency in these diverse areas involves the interplay of multiple factors-maturational constraints, schooling experiences, linguistic environments, communicative goals, and the characteristics of the interlocutors. The studies included in the present research topic address these interactions, highlighting how growth in discourse abilities emerges from dynamic systems rather than on the basis of a linear accumulation of skills.The issue opens with Lemen et al. study that examines children's comprehension of complex because and if sentences serving different pragmatic functions. Their findings show that neither cognitive complexity nor input frequency alone accounts for performance; instead, comprehension emerges at the intersection of linguistic structure, pragmatic relevance, and the contexts in which children encounter different utterance types.The following two contributions focus on lexical and rhetorical development in school-aged children. The study by Stavans and Zadurnasky provides a fine-grained account of rhetorical competence in Hebrew-speaking children's argumentative writing by tracing the developmental reorganization of discourse stance in the early school grades, from ages 7 to 10. Their findings reveal a shift from a writer-centered, emotional, and personal discourse stance to more text-oriented, epistemic, and generic formulations, underscoring not only the expansion of speakerwriters' perspectives, but also their progressive integration into coherent rhetorical attitudes.Zwilling and Ravid's research complements the foregoing study, by considering lexical development in Hebrew peer conversations across childhood and adolescence. Their corpus-based analysis shows how the distribution of what they term content and discourse words evolves in triadic peer talk, reflecting not only linguistic growth but also changes in social cognition, interactional expectations, and the pragmatic contribution of lexical usage in collaborative discourse.The next group of contributions addresses pragmatic and conceptual dimensions of discourse practices, emphasizing how communicative purposes, interlocutor characteristics, and contextual constraints shape developmental trajectories. Schariau et al. analyze the use of metaphors in dialogic explanations addressed to listeners with varying levels of expertise. Contrary to the expectation that metaphor use decreases with increasing expertise, they find the opposite pattern, so demonstrating that metaphor use is not merely a conceptual tool for novices but a flexible resource shaped by interactional context and communicative intent.Hess-Zimmermann and colleagues explore Mexican adolescents' metapragmatic reflections on verbal irony, demonstrating that interpretations of ironic criticism and praise are sensitive to age, the gender of the person using irony, and culturally shaped gender-role expectations. The study illuminates the development of pragmatic awareness in adolescence as young people begin to coordinate linguistic forms with nuanced social meanings.The final two studies extend the notion of discursive development to school-based genres, instructional contexts, and feedback practices. Aparici and colleagues investigate analytical essay writing across monolingual and bilingual students from elementary school to university, demonstrating how linguistic background (mono-and bi-lingual) interacts with developmental stage and pedagogical input to shape structural, syntacticdiscursive, and lexical features of writing. Their findings reveal that growth in analytical writing is driven not only by linguistic background but also by the complex interplay of age-related development, genre-oriented instruction, and teachers' evaluative practices.Tao and Qin, focusing on Chinese-speaking adolescents learning English as a foreign language, shift focus written qualitative feedback as a means of communicative interaction. Their mixedmethods study shows how adolescents conceptualize feedback-sometimes as guidance, sometimes as evaluation, sometimes as dialogic exchange-and how these approaches mediate their engagement with writing and their development of higher-order argumentative skills. Together, these studies highlight schooling as a key site where language users learn to integrate cognitive, rhetorical, and interpersonal demands of academic discourse.Taken together, the contributions to this research topic illustrate the richness and complexity of later language development as a multi-layered phenomenon. They show that discourse practices emerge not only from the growth of linguistic knowledge but from the dynamic interplay among cognitive resources, genre expectations, instructional support, cultural norms, and interactional contexts. By integrating perspectives from psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and educational linguistics, these studies advance our understanding of how children and adolescents become proficient communicators in the worlds they inhabit-and the worlds they are learning to enter.We hope that these studies will stimulate further research into the mechanisms, contexts, and trajectories of discourse development beyond early childhood, and so contribute to a more comprehensive theory of how language users build sophisticated, context-sensitive, and socially meaningful communicative competence across the lifespan.
Distinguishing what predicts danger and what does not and responding accordingly are essential to survival. Pavlovian conditioning is the process through which humans, and many other animals, learn to navigate these critical issues (Pavlov, 1927). For instance, one readily acquires and maintains fear of conditional stimuli (CS) that have predicted aversive, unconditional stimuli (US). During an encounter with the CS, one’s defensive behavior system is activated (Fanselow, 1994). Based on the perceived level of danger, cognitive, physiological, and behavioral effectors can be recruited to prepare for defense, the coordinated activation of which is considered “fear” (Fanselow & Pennington, 2018). When the CS no longer reliably predicts the US, conditional fear of the CS typically extinguishes, a process called “extinction.” Failure to extinguish conditional fear and effectively update threat appraisal of the CS despite disconfirming evidence may impair functioning. When behavioral, physiological, and cognitive resources remain mobilized toward defense in the absence of danger, or are recruited disproportionately to the real danger, goal-directed behavior including attentional control, decision-making, and avoidance become disrupted (Eysenck et al., 2023; Hartley & Phelps, 2012; Zorowitz et al., 2020). A wide range of fear-based psychopathology, including anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorders, is conceptualized as due, at least in part, to this failure (Kausche et al., 2025). Extinguished fear can resurge through several pathways after extinction, posing a long-standing challenge to the treatment of fear-based psychopathology. Spontaneous recovery, for example, occurs over time without continued experiences of the CS without the US (Rescorla, 2004). Another pathway is reinstatement, which occurs following unexpected experiences of the US alone (Bouton & Bolles, 1979; Rescorla & Heth, 1975). Individuals can also re-acquire conditional fear rapidly, should the CS and US be paired again (i.e., re-acquisition) (Leung et al., 2007). The resurgence of conditional fear has been attributed to the preservation of fear memory and contextual dependence of the retrieval of extinction memory (Bouton, 2002, 2004). According to Bouton’s theory, rather than unlearning the CS-US association, extinction results in new learning of a secondary, inhibitory CS-noUS association. This learning inhibits (momentarily) the expression of conditional fear but is confined to the spatiotemporal context where extinction is perceived to have occurred. Both passage of time after extinction and US presentations, whether unpaired or paired with the CS, which are both absent during extinction, may thus be perceived as a shift in context from extinction, leading to a return of fear. Notably, such return is estimated to occur in up to 62% of individuals (Craske & Mystkowski, 2006). The high return-of-fear rate may explain why exposure therapy, the clinical proxy of extinction and first-line treatment for anxiety and fear-related disorders, results in a long-term remission rate of only about 55%, despite large effect sizes in shorter-term fear reduction (Loerinc et al., 2015). There has been some evidence in the laboratory that gradual extinction is effective at attenuating the return of fear (Gershman et al., 2013; Kennedy et al., 2024; Quintero et al., 2022; Shiban et al., 2015). An alternative approach to extinction based on contemporary theoretical models of associative learning, gradual extinction introduces prediction error in a progressive manner to facilitate updating of original fear learning, instead of maximizing prediction error to encode new, inhibitory learning as conventionally emphasized in standard practices of fear extinction. The effects of gradual extinction might conceivably be heterogeneous due to individual differences. Much of human fear conditioning research focuses on the average effects of experimental manipulations, likely not because individual differences are not important but because often studies are underpowered. There is emerging evidence that there are meaningful individual differences in fear acquisition, extinction, and performance at tests of return of fear, although findings have been mixed and sparse (Kausche et al., 2025; Lonsdorf & Merz, 2017; Sjouwerman et al., 2020). Evaluation of novel methods of augmenting extinction should consider the heterogeneity of effects, to facilitate clinical translation. After all, the audience who would benefit from the clinical translation of this work is highly heterogeneous in composition. Among many factors to consider, severity of internalizing symptoms and trait positive affectivity may be of particular importance and relevance to research assessing the effects of gradual extinction. On one hand, in the therapeutic context, those who receive exposure-based treatment for fear-based psychopathology presumably have more severe internalizing symptoms than their average counterparts in the general population. Prior work suggests that anxiety- and stress-related vulnerability may be particularly associated with altered performance of extinction retention and consequently return of fear, including reduced vmPFC activation during extinction recall in anxiety disorders (Marin et al., 2017), poorer CS+/CS− differentiation following reinstatement among individuals with higher state anxiety (Kuhn et al., 2016), and heightened threat expectancy or negative affect ratings during extinction and extinction recall in anxiety-, obsessive-compulsive-, and trauma-related disorders (Kausche et al., 2025). Furthermore, there is evidence that stress impairs extinction and its recall (Maren & Holmes, 2016; Raio et al., 2014). On the other hand, trait positive affectivity may be a protective factor, facilitating learning processes of key relevance to extinction. There is evidence that trait positive affect predicts faster symptom reduction and lower follow-up symptoms for social anxiety disorder (Taylor et al., 2023). Furthermore, other work demonstrates that the induction of momentary positive affect predicts less re-acquisition of fear and attenuates reinstatement (Zbozinek et al., 2015; Zbozinek & Craske, 2017). Conversely, research evaluating the effects of trait negative affectivity is limited, although related constructs such as neuroticism and intolerance of uncertainty (IU) have received more attention (Lonsdorf & Merz, 2017; Sjouwerman et al., 2020). We include trait negative affectivity as a theoretically relevant comparator, given its conceptual overlap with internalizing symptoms and broader negative emotionality.
This is a qualitative study that aims to explore the representation of technology-mediated English education in policies and studies related to multicultural classrooms in the context of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Data collection: A purposive analytical corpus of 17 documents was created from four domains, namely, BRI education and language policy, technology-enhanced language learning, multilingual/English-as-a-lingua-franca pedagogy, and international guidance on digital education. Qualitative document analysis and thematic reflexivity were used for the analysis of documents that have been published between 2003 and 2024. The analysis was directed towards issues of access, interaction, linguistic norms, multilingual mediation, interculturality, assessment, and algorithmic authority. Findings: Five themes were developed. First, English is placed as a connecting resource, whereas implementing in English can result in unequal language authority. Secondly, the educational potential of technology is mainly those that enable people to interact with each other across borders, repair, revise and reflect on. Third, translanguaging and multimodality are not barriers to the learning of English. Fourth, digital participation is still dependent on the infrastructure, the accessibility, teacher mediation and data governance. Fifthly, automated systems can restrict legitimate variation in English and must be controlled by human use, critically examined. Originality: The study brings together language-policy studies in the context of BRI and technology-enhanced language learning and multilingual applied linguistics within one analytical frame. It suggests an iterative pedagogical cycle and assessment model of the digital English teaching responsive to language. Limitations: The results only refer to document representation and conceptual relations and are not indicative of classroom effectiveness or causality. 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This paper examines translation into the severely endangered Karelian language from the viewpoint of vocabulary work as language revitalisation, through a comparative analysis of Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and its Karelian translation. The novel was searched for likely lexical gaps, or words previously missing from Karelian. These words and their translations were examined to analyse the revitalising potential of translating into an endangered language. The analysis reveals that lexical gaps have often been bridged with a neologism, and that, in addition to the source language, the translator has utilised Finnish and Russian. The analysis exemplifies how translations can symbolically empower a language and introduce words to it, highlighting translators’ agency in shaping linguistic norms and sustaining endangered languages.
This paper re-examines the Palam Baoli inscription (1276 CE) to address a central question: how does early Delhi epigraphy encode identity, legitimacy, and power outside later-imposed religious binaries? Moving beyond conventional Hindu–Muslim frameworks, the study investigates the inscription’s internal logic through a combined methodology of epigraphic-structural analysis, genealogical mapping, lexical-semantic study, and archaeological contextualisation. The analysis reveals three key findings. First, the inscription demonstrates a selective genealogical asymmetry, with maternal lineage expanded more deeply than paternal, indicating that lineage is curated according to prestige rather than rigid patrilineal norms. Second, while Sultanate rulers are acknowledged, they are neither genealogically embedded nor religiously identified; instead, they are classified as “Saka,” reflecting continuity of older ethnographic categories. Third, Delhi is situated within Hariyanaka (early Haryana), suggesting a regional spatial framework that predates and outlasts shifting political regimes. These elements collectively point to a distinction between enduring memory systems (genealogy, geography, material patronage) and episodic power systems (regnal succession). The female were the geneology carriers rather than passive partners. The paper contributes to the field by demonstrating that early Delhi inscriptions operate within a civilizational grammar of memory that integrates political change without privileging religious identity. By foregrounding lineage, locality, and material culture, it challenges reductive historiographical models and offers a methodologically grounded re-reading of Sultanate-period sources, highlighting the need to interpret epigraphy on its own conceptual terms.
Kinship terms represent a significant component of the lexical and semantic system of any language, as they reflect social organization, cultural norms and interpersonal relationships. This study shows the functional and semantic features of kinship terms in the English language from a functionalsemantic perspective. The research examines the classification of kinship terms their semantic properties, including literal and figurative meanings, and their communicative functions in various contexts.
This article investigates the lexical and pragmatic means of expressing the category of “respect” in English and Uzbek fairy tales. Respect is analyzed as a linguistically and culturally conditioned phenomenon that reflects national mentality, ethical norms, and social hierarchy. The study focuses on lexical markers, forms of address, politeness formulas, honorific expressions, and pragmatic strategies that construct respectful communication in fairy tale discourse. The analysis reveals that English fairy tales often express respect through polite requests, modal verbs, indirect speech acts, and formal address terms, whereas Uzbek fairy tales demonstrate a stronger emphasis on honorific vocabulary, kinship-based address forms, and culturally fixed etiquette formulas.
The article investigates the integration of linguistic and cultural competence in English language education within the context of globalization and intercultural communication. Modern language education requires learners not only to acquire grammatical and lexical knowledge but also to understand sociocultural norms, values, and communicative behavior associated with the target language. The study analyzes theoretical perspectives developed by Western, CIS, and Uzbek scholars concerning the relationship between language and culture. Special attention is devoted to intercultural communicative competence, linguoculturology, linguistic relativity, and comparative cultural analysis. The article also explores the role of international educational frameworks such as CEFR, UNESCO initiatives, Erasmus+, and OECD Global Competence Framework in promoting intercultural education. The findings indicate that integrating linguistic and cultural competence contributes significantly to communicative effectiveness, intercultural sensitivity, critical thinking, and global citizenship. The study concludes that cultural integration should become a central methodological principle in modern foreign language teaching.
This article examines in detail the theoretical, methodological, and practical foundations of adhering to the norms of the Uzbek literary language in translation. Syntactic, lexical, and stylistic deviations in contemporary translations are analyzed, and their impact on national linguistic identity is discussed. The author develops the concept of a “linguistic filter” as a practical translation model and compares Uzbek translation scholarship with modern Western translation theories.
A leading Pauline scholar, A. Andrew Das is a professor of Religious Studies at Elmhurst University and has published prolifically on the Pauline corpus for both evangelical and broader scholarly audiences. He further introduces himself in this volume as the ‘husband of one wife’ and member of ‘a Protestant tradition that permits the remarriage of the innocent party of a divorce’ (9)—facts that are relevant to share because of the sensitive nature of the argument, which Das knows may elicit ‘bad press’ in his ecclesial context (292). Undeterred, Das sets forth a bold new examination of a long-debated matter: early Christian belief about the permissibility of remarriage following divorce. I use the singular ‘belief’ here intentionally, because Das means to demonstrate that a strong—indeed, absolute—consensus on this question can be traced from the teachings of Jesus through the Council of Nicaea (325 ce). Incongruous as it may be to modern sensibilities, Das contends that this consensus is negative: Early Christian writers are uniform in prohibiting remarriage following divorce. The study's scope is limited to this issue of remarriage, in particular. Marriage and divorce are addressed regularly, but only tangentially, as they relate specifically to remarriage. Methodologically, Das employs close textual analysis of all the most relevant biblical and patristic sources, engaging heavily with recent scholarship as he attends, especially, to grammatical and contextual considerations in each passage. Thus, his discussions are largely technical. Nevertheless, Das is well attuned to the broader implications of the study. His Introduction situates it within a stream of recent and some more popular treatments (Heth and Wenham, Instone-Brewer and Keener) whose specific readings he frequently engages (and often dismantles), even as he acknowledges that his case ‘goes against the headwinds of an emerging consensus that remarriage was permitted by the first Christians’ (12). The book therefore exhibits a refreshing combination of technical ardour and practical concern. Das's case begins (Chapter 1) with a contextual survey of ancient attitudes towards divorce and remarriage and a ‘widespread acceptance’ of both that navigates Greek, Roman and Jewish perspectives (15). In Judaism, the Mosaic Law allows for divorce certificates (Deut 24:1–4) and does not explicitly address the issue of subsequent remarriage, so that by the Second Temple period the freedom to do so is broadly assumed (the more rigid position of Qumran notwithstanding). Likewise in the Greco-Roman world, remarriage is protected as a legal right and, under Augustus, even mandated, despite the lingering conservative ideal of the univira, the lifelong, single-marriage woman. Both contexts, therefore, generally allow or even affirm remarriage, though dissent is not entirely unattested. This latter qualification is significant for Das's treatment of New Testament texts, which aims in part to address the objection that a radical rejection of remarriage within early Christianity would be ‘culturally unprecedented’ (13). Chapters 2–4 together consider the teaching of Jesus as presented in the Gospels, which, if not unprecedented, is at least deeply countercultural. Here, Das deftly navigates methodological tensions by engaging both critical and non-critical approaches. On the one hand, reconstruction of the historical Jesus ‘behind’ the Gospels yields three streams of teaching (Matt 5:32/Luke 16:18, Mark 10:11/Matt 19:9 and the Pauline material of 1 Cor 7) which meet the critical criteria of authenticity (multiple attestation, embarrassment and dissimilarity). On the other hand, the Gospels' presentations of the remembered Jesus, as analysed from the perspective of modern memory studies, include narrative contexts that frame and thus integrate his teaching on remarriage with other key themes, such as the cost of discipleship (Mark) and continuity with the law and prophets (Luke). Thus, accepting as authentic the absolute forms of Jesus's teachings against remarriage in Mark and Luke (Mark 10:11–12 and Luke 16:18) is not dependent on any particular scholarly method. What about Matthew's well-known ‘exception clauses’ (Matt 5:32; 19:9), however? Das allocates two chapters (Chapters 3–4) to these texts, the most formidable obstacles to his thesis. Much hinges on our interpretations of the phrase ‘μὴ ἐπὶ πορνείᾳ’ (the basis for the exception in both passages) and of the claim that the one who remarries commits adultery (μοιχᾶται). In Chapter 3, Das handily dismisses creative attempts to overtranslate the passive (deponent) form, such that stigmatization, rather than adultery, is in view. He also shows the grammatical untenability of both restricting and widening the meaning of πορνείᾳ in various readings. A lexical study proves that in New Testament usage, it is ‘a broad term referring to sexual relations outside [the] marital context’ (143). As traditionally understood, then, the exception clauses permit divorce on the grounds of sexual immorality, which has already severed the marriage bond. Do they also—as now widely assumed—authorize remarriage, though? Chapter 4 argues emphatically that they do not. For Das, this modern interpretation leads to some problematic conclusions (e.g., ‘the innocent spouse of an illegitimate divorce may not remarry, while the guilty spouse of a legitimate divorce would be free to do so’; 157). For both Matthean texts, Das questions the now-prevailing tendency to assume what is not explicitly stated: that the exception on the grounds of adultery applies to both divorce and remarriage. He adduces several lines of overlooked textual and contextual evidence: the variant (but possibly original) reading of Vaticanus, the phrase's grammatical positioning, comparative analysis of the construction, the constraining effect of the absolute statements in the other Gospels and the lack of early Christian references to such an exception. Moreover, he connects Matt 19:9 with the subsequent enigmatic discussion about eunuchs (19:10–12), which, on this reading, describes divorcees as those who ‘have been made eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom’. In their case, ‘As difficult as a life of such discipleship may be, Jesus insists that the celibate lifestyle remains possible thanks to the help of God’ (187). Chapter 5 turns to Paul and the earliest textual witness to the dominical tradition (1 Cor 7:10–11). Again, Das notes that any permission for remarriage must be read into the prohibition of divorce and Paul's ensuing discussion in 1 Cor 7. Das methodically counters five alternate (more flexible) interpretations, including, most notably, Paul's statement that the Christian abandoned by an unbelieving spouse is ‘not bound’ (1 Cor 7:15). Das shows that in this context, Paul uses the technical language of ‘freedom’ commonly found in divorce certificates only to describe the status of widows (7:39). The same idea is found in Romans 7:2–3, where Paul's analogy for freedom from the law assumes that a marital bond terminates only in death. With all possible escape routes exhausted, Das concludes that ‘What remains at the end of the day is the firm, unqualified, command of the Lord in 1 Cor 7:11 that the divorced are not to remarry’ (231). Finally, Das examines the reception of this dominical and Pauline material in the early Church, from the Apostolic Fathers through the canons of Nicaea. His most extensive discussions centre on Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen, though many others receive passing mentions. The findings are not surprising: One searches in vain for an explicit sanction of remarriage in cases of divorce—even in commentary on the so-called Matthean exception texts (268). Bolstering the case, Das disputes the common charge that the overly ‘ascetic’ (Platonic) tendencies of early Christianity explain this radical position. Even beyond the well-documented difficulties of defining the term ‘ascetic’, Das argues that, as his chapters on the New Testament material attest, ‘ascetic elements were present at the beginning’ of the Christian movement, in the teachings of Jesus and Paul—with the writers of the following centuries ‘merely following in their footsteps’ (275). The existential weight of his case, particularly for those who ‘draw upon the biblical witness as the sole or primary norm for personal or churchly practice’, is not lost on Das (286). If he is correct, how should his fellow Protestants, who have almost universally embraced remarriage, proceed? Das's concluding reflections are very brief, and not quite pastoral, but sensitive and hopeful. Jesus and Paul may view remarriage as adultery, but adultery, like all sins, can be forgiven. Their teachings need not imply that remarriage is a state of continuous adultery (288). Second marriages are real marriages, even if not convened appropriately, and the New Testament never calls for them to be dissolved after the fact. Das's parting counsel, therefore, is that ‘The remarried partners should repent of the adultery and then remain “where they are,” to draw on Paul's language in 1 Cor 7’ (291). Of course, Das recognizes that it is for others—ethicists, pastors and counsellors—to work out the practical implications of his argument in full; but there is no question that it will be necessary for them to do so moving forward. Though this study is scholarly and at times technical, its lucid central arguments should be accessible to determined non-specialists. And the gravity of its claims must at least be sensed and addressed, even if not ultimately accepted, by all Christians who regard Scripture and Tradition as in any sense authoritative for faith and practice.
Данное исследование документирует лексическую систему южного языкового анклава города Алматы в период 1976–1989 гг., с фокусом на жаргонную лексику и её социальносемантические группы. Цель работы — реконструировать и систематизировать региональный жаргон как компонент городской социокультуры, проследить его внутреннюю структуру и влияние на повседневное поведение и межгрупповые отношения. Методология опирается на описательные лингвистические приёмы: сбор лексикограмматических единиц из полевых материалов и устных свидетельств, их кластеризация по лексикосемантическим признакам и сопоставление с контекстами употребления. Лексемы были организованы в тематические группы (обозначения социальных ролей, терминология конфликтного взаимодействия, бытовая урбанистическая лексика и др.), для каждой единицы приведены толкования и иллюстративные примеры употребления, а также пометки о региональной и социокультурной вариативности. Результаты показывают, что южный жаргон Алматы функционировал одновременно как механизм внутригрупповой идентификации и как среда культурной агрессии: с одной стороны, он формировал замкнутую коммуникативную зону, отчуждающую анклав от внешнего социума; с другой — распространял маргинальные нормы и этику на более широкие слои городского населения, что в ряде случаев влекло за собой негативные социальные последствия для присоединившихся индивидов. Исследование выявляет специфические лексикосемантические стратегии, обеспечивавшие устойчивость жаргонной системы (лексическая амбивалентность, эвфемизация, кодификация роли и статуса). Научный вклад состоит в систематизации регионального жаргона для последующего социолингвистического анализа и в разработке методической схемы сбора и кластеризации жаргонных единиц применительно к языковым анклавам. Практическая значимость исследования — возможность использования материалов для историкосоциальной реконструкции городской субкультуры и для разработки программ превентивной работы с уязвимыми молодежными группами. This study documents the lexical system of the southern linguistic enclave of the city of Almaty during the period 1976–1989, with a focus on slang vocabulary and its socio-semantic groups. The aim of the work is to reconstruct and systematize regional slang as a component of urban socioculture, tracing its internal structure and its influence on everyday behavior and intergroup relations. The methodology is based on descriptive linguistic techniques: the collection of lexico-grammatical units from field materials and oral testimonies, their clustering according to lexico-semantic features, and comparison with contexts of use. The lexemes were organized into thematic groups (designations of social roles, terminology of conflict interaction, everyday urban vocabulary, etc.), with interpretations and illustrative examples of usage provided for each unit, as well as notes on regional and sociocultural variation. The results show that the southern slang of Almaty functioned simultaneously as a mechanism of intra-group identification and as a medium of cultural aggression: on one hand, it formed a closed communicative zone, alienating the enclave from the external society; on the other, it spread marginal norms and ethics to broader strata of the urban population, which in some cases led to negative social consequences for the individuals who joined. The study identifies specific lexico-semantic strategies that ensured the stability of the slang system (lexical ambivalence, euphemization, codification of role and status). The scientific contribution consists in systematizing regional slang for subsequent sociolinguistic analysis and in developing a methodological scheme for collecting and clustering slang units in relation to linguistic enclaves. The practical significance of the study lies in the possibility of using the materials for historical and social reconstruction of urban subculture and for developing preventive programs for vulnerable youth groups.
Medical terminology represents a highly structured lexical subsystem that ensures precision and consistency in professional communication. Within this system, infectious disease terminology occupies a particularly important position due to the global impact of communicable diseases and the rapid development of medical science. The present study investigates the lexicographic features of infectious disease terminology in English and Uzbek languages. The research focuses on the representation, definition, and standardization of medical terms in lexicographic sources such as medical dictionaries and terminological databases. A comparative analysis of selected infectious disease terms was conducted using English and Uzbek medical dictionaries. The findings demonstrate that most infectious disease terms originate from Latin and Greek roots and exhibit a high degree of internationalization. At the same time, Uzbek lexicography reflects the adaptation of these international terms to national linguistic norms while preserving semantic accuracy. The study highlights the role of lexicographic description in the standardization of medical terminology and emphasizes the importance of consistent terminological representation in multilingual medical communication.
The article examines the current state of the Baksan dialect in comparison with the literary Kabardian-Cherkessian language. It is based on the monographic studies of Adyghe scholars who studied the dialects and vernaculars of the Kabardian-Cherkessian language in the 1960s. The article uses descriptive, comparative-historical, and contrastive linguistic methods. The field material covering the spoken language of the residents of Baksan and the villages of Baksanenok, Islamey, Dugulubgey, and Kishpek in the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic was subjected to a comprehensive analysis. A comparative analysis of K.T. Mamreshev's research and the current state of the Baksan dialect revealed phonetic and lexical differences from the literary Kabardian-Circassian language. It was established that in the Baksan dialect, the copula suffix -s was preserved in the speech of all ages and both sexes, instead of -sh; the negative suffix -Iym was preserved instead of -kym. A linguistic analysis of the spoken language of the studied linguistic area has shown that the affrication of the back-tongue consonants gʼ, kʼ, and chIʼ into j, ch, and kI has not yet been completed in the modern Baksan dialect. The analysis also revealed a small layer of vocabulary that differs from the literary language. It is concluded that there are minor deviations from the literary norm of the Kabardian-Cherkessian language in the phonetic and lexical systems of the modern Baksan dialect.
This article considers linguistic and cultural explanation as an effective means of developing the linguocultural competence of primary school students during the process of learning Russian. It substantiates the relevance of addressing the cultural content of language units at the initial stage of learning, particularly within the context of bilingual education. The author reveals the essence of linguistic and cultural explanation, distinguishing it from traditional lexical explanation and highlighting its didactic potential in the primary language education system. The basic principles and objects for employing these explanations in Russian language lessons are established. Finally, the article provides examples of tasks and methodological techniques aimed at fostering an understanding of culturally marked language units, speech formulas, and norms of speech behavior among young learners.
Language is a living organism that evolves alongside technological and social advancements. This paper examines the phenomenon of neologisms—newly coined words or expressions—and their pervasive role in contemporary English mass media. The study categorizes recent neologisms based on their morphological formation processes, such as blending, compounding, and functional shift. Furthermore, it analyzes how mass media acts as a primary catalyst for the popularization of these terms. By investigating digital journals, social media platforms, and news broadcasts, the research highlights the pragmatic functions of neologisms in creating concise, engaging, and culturally relevant communication. The findings provide insights into the current trends of English lexicology and the impact of the digital age on linguistic norms.
Status: Working Paper This manuscript is a work in progress and represents a preliminary formulation of the Cognitive Alignment framework. The concepts and definitions herein are subject to further refinement and peer review. This working paper introduces Cognitive Alignment Theory, a framework challenging the "file transfer" model of communication in favor of a functionalist "remote control" model. I propose that true intersubjective understanding is impossible due to the Solipsistic Veil—the impenetrable barrier isolating individual qualia. Consequently, communication does not transmit internal states but functions as Wireless Tinkering: the use of linguistic signals to trigger simulated heuristics in the receiver's database. Success in this model is defined not by shared feeling, but by Cognitive Alignment: the synchronization of behavioral logic and output, regardless of internal divergence. This reliance on alignment over understanding creates the risk of Solipsistic Exclusion, where marginalized agents are structurally isolated because dominant linguistic databases lack the "hardware" to simulate their lived reality. Finally, I apply this framework to Large Language Models (LLMs), arguing that AI systems utilize "heuristic steering" to achieve Cognitive Alignment without possessing an internal reality, potentially leading to mass manipulation via personalized "wireless tinkering".
ABSTRACT Classical fear conditioning describes how neutral cues acquire a threat value, yet how learned associations are retrieved and generalised across similar stimuli specifically is an ongoing debate. We combined behavioural ratings, physiological measures, and fMRI in a two-day classical fear conditioning paradigm to characterize acquisition, retrieval, and generalisation across modalities. Twenty-five healthy participants completed acquisition trials on Day 1 and retrieval and generalisation trials on Day 2 using conditioned (CS+, CS-) and graded generalisation stimuli (GS). Outcomes included trial-wise US expectancy ratings, pre/post fear and arousal ratings, skin conductance responses (SCR), pupil dilation, and ROI-based fMRI (amygdala, hippocampus, insula, periaqueductal gray (PAG), locus coeruleus). Acquisition yielded robust CS+/CS-discrimination in behavioural ratings and increased BOLD responses in bilateral insula and PAG. During retrieval, US-expectancy ratings indicated early retrieval of CS contingency. The fMRI results showed greater BOLD activity during CS+ presentations than during CS-presentations in bilateral hippocampus, left insula and right PAG. Additionally, hippocampus-insula coupling increased. Critically, parametric modulation during retrieval revealed that trial-wise mean US-expectancy modulated BOLD responses in left insula and right PAG, with a trend in left hippocampus. Across generalisation, US-expectancy and pupil dilation responses followed graded profiles, which could be explained by a Gaussian model, whereas SCR generalised, but was not captured by a Gaussian model. Parametric modulation by US-expectancy correlated with BOLD activity in left PAG, with a trend in right hippocampus. Stimulus identity explained variance in bilateral insula and left PAG. Findings converge on a hippocampus-insula-PAG network that retrieves learned predictions, and scales defensive output according to similarity-based threat probability, linking subjective, physiological, and neural outcomes.
ABSTRACT Translating local research into English as a lingua franca (ELF) connects local scholarship with global readership, but this process remains constrained by language barriers. Large language models (LLMs) offer advanced accessible solutions, but their responsible integration into academic translation requires a deeper understanding of the linguistic profiles they produce. To address this gap, this corpus‐based study quantitatively evaluates three linguistic dimensions of research article abstracts (RAAs), i.e., lexical complexity, syntactic complexity, and cohesive features, that can influence knowledge dissemination of research articles. Using Chinese‐to‐English RAAs from soft and hard disciplines, we compare translations by two LLMs (LLMTs), GPT‐4o and DeepSeek‐V3, against their corresponding de facto languaging practice by human translators (HTs). Findings reveal that both LLMTs consistently produce higher lexical complexity through varied and sophisticated vocabulary beyond academic stylistic norms but feature lower syntactic complexity with less subordination, reduced phrasal complexity, and weaker cohesive strength. HTs, however, balance lower lexical complexity with higher syntactic complexity and stronger cohesive ties. These findings highlight the communicative affordances and constraints of LLM‐mediated academic translation, offering practical and pedagogical insights for English for Academic Purposes practitioners, academic translators, and non‐anglophone scholars in ELF academic contexts.
This article explores the conceptualization of the emotion anger (referred to as “g‘azab” in Uzbek) within the worldview of diverse linguistic systems, drawing on conceptual metaphor theory and conceptual metonymy theory. Through a comparative analysis of metaphorical and metonymic models in typologically varied languages (primarily English, Uzbek, and Russian), the study identifies near-universal patterns rooted in embodied physiological experiences—such as anger is heat, anger is pressure, anger is fire, and anger is an opponent—while highlighting culture- and language-specific variations in salience, elaboration, and additional mappings. The research employs corpus-based and lexical approaches to examine linguistic expressions, idioms, and proverbs, demonstrating how embodied universality interacts with cultural norms, social values, and contextual factors to shape folk models of anger.
A Universal Dependencies treebank for Old Georgian, containing morphosyntactic annotations of the Book of Ezra (Oshki Bible) in CoNLL-U format. We are grateful to Dr. Paul Meurer for his discussion and guidance and to Prof. Dr. Jost Gippert for generously making the Old Georgian corpus available online on TITUS (https://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/cauc/ageo/at/oskijer/oskij.htm)
Migration processes in the European Union have a significant impact on the lifestyle of the EU citizens. The role of the Muslim community in Europe has been growing, leading to the emergence of many new Muslim-related concepts in the media discourse. Using the German-language media discourse as an example, the authors of this article trace the changes in the vocabulary of the German language using the example of the lexeme “halal”. Through the analysis of speech structures, they reveal the attitudes of German-speaking society toward this recognised phenomenon of the Islamic culture. The study revealed that the concept of “halal” is the most frequent borrowing in the contemporary German-language press. The lexical unit is often used by journalists both literally and figuratively and is most often found in the following thematic groups: Food, Politics, Tourism, Cosmetics, and Lifestyle. The lexeme “halal”, which once denoted an Islamic culture-specific concept and had no equivalent in German, is acquiring new meanings in the German-language media discourse and adapting to the linguistic norms of the German language. The initially indeclinable adjective forms complex determinative noun compounds, most often using a hyphenated model, and less often without one. Many neologisms are of an occasional nature. Lexical units containing the component “halal” often have a neutral connotation, but when describing conflict situations involving migrants from Muslim countries, the German-language press also resolves a negative connotation.
This thesis examines the linguistic, semantic, and linguocultural features of expressing aesthetic evaluation in the Uzbek language. Aesthetic evaluation represents a subjective-objective attitude formed through the perception of reality, the understanding of beauty and ugliness, and the interpretation of human qualities. In Uzbek, aesthetic meanings are conveyed through various linguistic devices such as epithets, metaphors, proverbs, idioms, polysemantic words, and evaluative adjectives. The study analyzes aesthetic judgment in relation to physical appearance, inner qualities, morality, behavior, and cultural values. Using Uzbek folk proverbs, literary texts, and lexical materials, the article demonstrates the close connection between aesthetic evaluation, national worldview, aesthetic ideals, and socio-cultural norms. The research presents generalized scientific conclusions on how aesthetic evaluation is shaped in the Uzbek language and its role in the national aesthetic consciousness.
Respect plays a crucial role in successful interpersonal and intercultural communication. However, differences in linguistic norms and pragmatic conventions often lead to misunderstandings between speakers of different languages. This article examines pragmatic failures in expressing respect in English-Russian cross-cultural communication. The study aims to identify linguistic and cultural factors that cause misinterpretations of respect and to analyze how respect is pragmatically encoded in both languages. The findings suggest that pragmatic failures frequently arise from divergent politeness strategies, speech act realizations, and sociocultural expectations embedded in English and Russian communicative practices. The study emphasizes the importance of pragmatic awareness in developing intercultural communicative competence.
In the context of digital transformation, the development of electronic dictionaryplatforms includes an important software stage. However, after completing this stage, the primary task becomes the collection and systematization of the dictionary’s lexical database. Vocabulary is the most dynamic and changeable layer of a language. As society, science, and technology evolve, new words emerge while others gradually fall out of use. Therefore, the content of an electronic dictionary requires continuous updating
This article examines the intrinsic relationship between language and culture, emphasizing the crucial role of linguistic systems in representing, transmitting, and shaping cultural knowledge. Language serves not merely as a communicative tool but as a cultural medium that encodes values, beliefs, social norms, and historical experiences of a community. The study highlights how lexical choices, idiomatic expressions, discourse structures, and pragmatic markers reflect cultural priorities and worldview. It further explores the mechanisms through which culture is preserved and communicated through language, including the use of proverbs, metaphors, culturally specific terms, and pragmatic markers in both spoken and written discourse. Drawing on theoretical frameworks from sociolinguistics, linguistic anthropology, and cultural studies, the article demonstrates that understanding the interdependence of language, culture, and pragmatic markers is essential for interpreting texts, cross-cultural communication, and the study of national identity. The findings underscore that language acts as both a repository and a mirror of cultural heritage, mediating between generations and social groups.
Humans adjust their linguistic style to the audience they are addressing.However, the extent to which LLMs adapt to different social contexts is largely unknown.As these models increasingly mediate human-to-human communication, their failure to adapt to diverse styles can perpetuate stereotypes and marginalize communities whose linguistic norms are less closely mirrored by the models, thereby reinforcing social stratification.We study the extent to which LLMs integrate into social media communication across different socioeconomic status (SES) communities.We collect a novel dataset from Reddit and YouTube, stratified by SES.We prompt four LLMs with incomplete text from that corpus and compare the LLMgenerated completions to the originals along 94 sociolinguistic metrics, including syntactic, rhetorical, and lexical features.LLMs modulate their style with respect to SES to only a minor extent, often resulting in approximation or caricature, and tend to emulate the style of upper SES more effectively.Our findings (1) show how LLMs risk amplifying linguistic hierarchies and (2) call into question their validity for agent-based social simulation, survey experiments, and any research relying on language style as a social signal.
The integration of large language models such as ChatGPT has raised concerns about stylistic homogenization in scholarly writing. While scientific literature shows clear LLM-driven shifts, e.g., increased lexical markers and reduced cohesion (Bao et al., 2025; Kousha & Thelwall, 2024), this study examines whether similar changes appear in humanities thesis and dissertation titles. Drawing on 8,631 unique MA and PhD titles from ProQuest in History, Religion, Literature, Philosophy, and Musicology, linguistic features were compared between 2015 (pre-AI) and 2025 (post-AI stabilization). Five dimensions were analyzed: word length, informativity, lexical diversity, syntactic structure, and semantic content. Results reveal remarkable stability across most metrics (title length ~12–13 words, informativity ~67%, lexical diversity near 100%). Only a modest increase in compound structures (70% to 74%) occurred, reflecting amplification of existing humanities conventions rather than disruption. The brevity of titles and extended human supervision appear to limit deep LLM intervention. These findings contrast with scientific fields and highlight the resilience of disciplinary norms in graduate scholarship.
Part of speech and syntactically annotated dataset for modern Mongolian. The dataset is a fully annotated corpus of modern Mongolian texts written in Mongolian Cyrillic.
This study examines efforts to preserve the naturalness and sustainability of the Kazakh language from an ecolinguistic perspective. A systematic review method is employed, analyzing 32 academic publications obtained from designated databases covering the period 2020–2025. The findings indicate that language preservation relies on structural interventions such as national language policies, public prestige, and alphabet reform. Lexical strategies that balance terminology modernization with the preservation of traditional cultural discourse and educational policies that prioritize national identity and standardized norms were also within those structural interventions. The findings reveal that globalization (English) and historical language hierarchies (Russian) have narrowed the language's academic and public functions, and digitalization has presented opportunities and led to normative deviations. Ultimately, the ecological sustainability of the Kazakh language requires a holistic, proactive, and data-driven governance model that integrates policy, education, and digital technology, beyond merely prescriptive or simplistic approaches. This study offers a theoretical synthesis and a practical roadmap for language planners by outlining policy-oriented strategies, education-based interventions, and technology-supported mechanisms for sustaining linguistic naturalness.
Introduction. The article is devoted to the analysis of nominations referring to persons with disabilities in the modern German language. The aim of the study was to identify the main structural features of these nominations, their semantics and functioning across various discourse types. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the integrated approach to the study of nominations, combining linguistic and socially oriented parameters of analysis. The relevance of the study is due to the growing attention of society to issues of inclusion and the need to form a correct linguistic norm regarding the designation of persons with disabilities. Methodology and sources. The methodological framework of the study is the cognitive, pragmatic and sociolinguistic approaches, allowing to consider the nomination as a result of the interaction of language and social representations. The empirical basis of the study is German-language texts of medical, legal and media discourses. The data were collected through continuous sampling from six publications about people with disabilities. The analysis includes the systematisation of the identified designations, the determination of their discursive functions and their interpretation within contemporary linguistic practice. Results and discussion. The total number of extracted nominations was 209 units. The obtained results show that the analysed texts are dominated by neutral and inclusive nominations aimed at emphasising the individual rather than his/her health problems. Legal texts are dominated by nominations established by law, reflecting the legal status of persons with disabilities. Medical texts demonstrate a high level of detail in describing the disabilities of individuals, which is reflected in their designations. In media texts, a combination of neutral and evaluative nominations is observed, which is associated with the influence of social stereotypes and emotions. Conclusion. The obtained results indicate the formation of an inclusive norm in the German language, focused on respectful and neutral designation of disability. Nominations serve as an important tool for representing individuals and reflect dynamic changes in society.
The given article dwells on the word-formation processes involving somatic vocabulary (words denoting body parts) in the poetic works of the renowned 14th-century Tajik-Persian poet Kamol Khujandi. The study identifies and analyzes the morphological, syntactic-morphological, and lexical-semantic methods employed by the poet to create derivative and compound words from somatisms such as dil (heart), dast (hand), chashm (eye), jon (soul), and others. The research reveals that somatisms function as highly productive bases for word formation in Khujandi’s poetry, with the word dil appearing 278 times in derivative and compound structures. The poet utilizes prefixes (particularly be-), suffixes (-a, -ī, -goh), and combinatorial methods to create new lexical units that often acquire metaphorical meanings beyond their physiological references. These word-formation patterns reflect both the linguistic norms of Classical Persian-Tajik and the poet’s individual stylistic innovations. The findings contribute to the understanding of historical word-formation processes in Tajik and Persian linguistics and highlight the role of somatic vocabulary in poetic expression.
This study explores the intercultural dimensions of academic and media communication through a discourse-analytical framework. In the context of globalization and rapid digital transformation, cross-cultural communication has become increasingly complex, necessitating a deeper understanding of linguistic, pragmatic, and sociocultural factors. The research examines how discourse practices differ between academic and media contexts under the influence of cultural norms, values, and communicative conventions. Employing qualitative discourse analysis, the study identifies key strategies such as rhetorical organization, lexical choices, and narrative structures in selected texts. The findings reveal that intercultural differences significantly shape both the production and interpretation of discourse, affecting argumentation patterns, levels of formality, and communicative intentions. The study concludes that enhancing intercultural competence and critical discourse awareness is essential for effective communication in a globalized world.
Linguistic transformations are deliberate changes in form that translators use to preserve meaning when direct equivalence is unavailable or unnatural. This article explains why transformations are necessary and how they function as meaning-maintenance tools at lexical, grammatical, and discourse levels. Drawing on classic taxonomies of procedures (e.g., transposition and modulation) and the concept of translation shifts, the paper proposes a practical framework for selecting transformations based on context, genre, and reader needs. Multiple short examples demonstrate how transformations prevent semantic loss, pragmatic distortion, and cohesion breakdown. The analysis shows that successful transformations are not “free translation,” but controlled operations guided by communicative purpose and target-language norms. The article concludes that transformation competence is a core indicator of professional translation quality and can be systematically taught and assessed.
“List as many words as you can that start with M.” The verbal fluency (VF) task is simple, yet even a typical university student only manages to produce about 15 words within one minute, and there is substantial variability around this mean. We examined which individual difference factors best predict this variability, focusing on the contributions of linguistic knowledge and domain-general skills. 571 young native Dutch speakers completed semantic (category) and phonemic (letter) VF tasks, along with an individual differences test battery. Linguistic knowledge was assessed through a composite of six tests measuring vocabulary, reading experience, and grammar knowledge, and compared to short-term/working memory, processing speed, and nonverbal reasoning. We assessed the VF trials for the total number of correct words as well as two temporal variables, the time to first response and a proxy for the time by which half of the responses had been produced. Mixed effects modeling showed that linguistic knowledge predicted the total number of correct responses in both semantic and phonemic VF. Short-term/working memory and processing speed were also significant predictors, but with smaller estimated effect sizes. The temporal variables showed little effect of linguistic skills. We discuss how linguistic knowledge shapes the structure of the mental lexicon such that it affects both meaning-driven and form-driven access to lexical items. Finally, we provide updated norms for VF performance in Dutch and practical suggestions for using the task.
The article examines the mechanisms of implementing paradoxicality in aphorisms of twentiethcentury American poetry. Paradoxicality holds a prominent place in contemporary studies, as it reflects not only the uniqueness of linguistic expression, but also the complexity of cognitive processes. As a significant object of linguistic analysis, it demonstrates the ability of languages to generate contradictory yet semantically rich statements, which challenge traditional norms and enhance the philosophical and cultural dimensions of poetic discourse.An endeavour is made to scrutinise aphorisms as one of the most effective means of verbalising paradoxicality, given that they are capable of producing new senses through semantic oppositions and the violation of habitual models and norms of lexical compatibility, creating a contrast between the expectedand the unexpected. Despite the fact that aphorisms have long attracted the attention of the scientific community and as a linguistic and cultural phenomenon have been studied by representatives of various scientific schools, a number of issues still require more detailed consideration. Paradoxicality as one of the defining features of aphoristic expressions is among such issues. It is precisely the paradoxical approach to comprehending phenomena and objects of the surrounding world that shapes the distinctiveness of the aphorism as a form of deep philosophical generalisation and verbalisation of human experiences. Due to their original and stunning content, aphorisms often transcend traditional criteria of truth and falsity. The material for the study encompasses the aphorisms selected from the works of twentieth-century American poetry. This literary corpus represents a valuable source of forms in which the authors’ individuality combines with universal cultural codes. Such expressions not only exhibit the intricate existential and philosophical ideas of their era, but also remain relevant in the twenty-first century, shaping our critical engagement with complex and multifaceted issues.
The review is devoted to the analysis of the textbook by O. Mykytiuk and I. Farion «Language and Linguists: The Establishment of the Norm», which corresponds to the curriculum of the course «Ukrainian Language for Professional Purposes», currently studied by students of all specialties. It is demonstrated that, by virtue of its content, systematically implemented through the general didactic principle of scientific rigour, this publication meets the standards of a scholarly educational edition. Particular attention is paid to the main object of the scholarly and didactic exposition – the phenomenon of the language norm in its multifunctional representation. The textbook justifiably prioritises a multidirectional interpretation of orthographic norms through a diachronic-synchronic lens. Emphasis is placed on the conceptual dominants of fifteen thematic units and their specific informational content, which enables the tracing of key stages of Ukrainian glottogenesis – from ancient times to the present – as well as significant milestones in lexicographic and terminological studies. The authors also reveal the lexical, phraseological, and word-formation richness of the Ukrainian language, highlight the specificity of its phonetic and grammatical structure, and outline the development of its stylistic system. The originality of the work is further determined by its linguo-personalised component, represented by narratives about precedent linguistic (linguistic-scholarly) personalities, including P. Berynda, M. Smotrytskyi, O. Potebnia, P. Zhytetskyi, B. Hrinchenko, O. Syniavskyi, A. Krymskyi, O. Kurylo, I. Ohiienko (Metropolitan Bishop Ilarion), B. Antonenko-Davydovych, O. Tykhyi, O. Horbach, S. Karavanskyi, O. Ponomariv and V. Nimchuk. High praise is also due to the linguodidactic support materials, through which the authors – employing both traditional and innovative educational methods – promote the development of life and professional competences of future specialists, as well as the cultivation of an intellectually mature, spiritually rich, educated, linguistically cultured, patriotic, and Ukraine-centred personality.
The current paper investigates the translation of proverbs in Abai Kunanbaev’s “Words of Edification” into Russian and English languages, focusing on the strategies used to convey semantic accuracy, cultural meaning and pragmatic intent. In this study, we have used Molina and Albir’s (2002) translational classification to analyze the selected proverbs in Kazakh langauge. As a result, we have identified some applied translation techniques in rendering the source proverbs. These findings indicate that word-for-word translation is the most frequently used strategy in the indirect version. As to the Russian translation, more often employed strategies are established equivalent, modulation and adaptation which align with Russian cultural and linguistic norms. Under certain circumstances, the indirect translation shows semantic shifts, metaphorical loss of meaning because of mediating language rather than the source culture. Yet, applying modulation and borrowing strategies enable to maintain several cultural components and metaphorical traits.
This study examines the participation experiences of multilingual students speaking English as an additional language (EAL) and their decisions to invest or disinvest in language practices during classroom discussions. Using an embedded multiple case study design, data were collected through classroom observations, weekly reflections, and individual interviews, and analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings show that course characteristics, such as structure and topic, influenced power dynamics and identity negotiation, reinforcing sociocultural and linguistic norms aligned with Western participation practices. The complex interplay of course dynamics, norms, and broader ideologies contributed to multilingual EAL students’ novice identity, creating barriers that made it challenging for them to disrupt participatory norms and invest in the language practices of the course community. This article underscores the importance of reframing participation as a collaborative and critical process and highlights the need to create inclusive classroom environments to support the equitable participation of multilingual EAL students.
Pedagogical bilingual dictionaries are expected to do more than provide translation equivalents: they must support comprehension, accurate production, and the gradual formation of lexical and grammatical competence in learners who operate between two linguistic systems. Traditional bilingual lexicography often treats equivalence as a stable word-to-word relation and represents meaning through short glosses, while contrastive linguistics repeatedly demonstrates that cross-language correspondences are frequently partial, context-dependent, and shaped by differences in semantic segmentation, collocational norms, pragmatic conventions, and culture-specific conceptualization. This article argues that the most productive way to modernize bilingual pedagogical dictionaries is to convert contrastive linguistic results into explicit semantic design principles: a contrastive sense inventory, an “equivalence gradient” (full/partial/functional/zero equivalence), frame-informed meaning explanations, corpus-based collocational templates, and learner-oriented usage warnings that directly target typical interference and errors. The results indicate that contrastive-semantic modeling reduces ambiguity in polysemy alignment, improves learners’ productive choices, and increases the dictionary’s diagnostic value as a tool for preventing negative transfer.
Vibration has the potential to convey expressive and affective qualities, similar to how color communicates emotion in visual interfaces. However, systematic evidence for such correspondences remains limited. This paper presents a controlled perceptual study examining whether vibration amplitude and frequency elicit consistent associations with both emotion and color. Participants completed amplitude-only, frequency-only, and combined conditions while providing affective ratings (valence, arousal, and emotion labels) and selecting corresponding color attributes (hue, brightness, and saturation). Results showed that increasing amplitude led to higher arousal ratings and color selections with greater saturation but lower brightness, while increasing frequency modestly elevated arousal and biased hue toward warmer tones and higher saturation. Combined conditions produced the strongest arousal responses, with a significant amplitude–frequency interaction. Color associations showed parallel but nonsignificant shifts toward warmer and more saturated hues, suggesting partial convergence among vibrotactile intensity, emotional activation, and perceptual color warmth. These findings demonstrate that vibrotactile parameters can systematically shape perceptual and affective responses, offering a foundation for expressive haptic design.
The curation of Armenian medical vocabulary from Late Antiquity to the early modern period reflects an intricate interplay between lexical borrowing and native word formation. Medical terminology entered Armenian mainly through Greek, Arabic and Persian. Each influenced scribal decisions based on factors such as semantic precision, syntactical compatibility and cultural relevance. Direct borrowings were often transliterated in accordance with phonological norms. Marginal glosses and commentary added pedagogical clarity. Medical concepts such as pharmacological compounds, anatomical parts and botany illustrate the linguistic continuity in the Armenian vocabulary. The resulting lexicon was neither passive adoption nor bulk translation, but instead a carefully synthesised glossary shaped by ideological and philological pressures. The Armenian medical language thus reveals the exigencies of scribes in mediating scientific knowledge, serving as a valuable case study in cross-cultural medical transmission and historical medical linguistics.
Static concreteness ratings are widely used in NLP, yet a word's concreteness can shift with context, especially in figurative language such as metaphor, where common concrete nouns can take abstract interpretations. While such shifts are evident from context, it remains unclear how LLMs understand concreteness internally. We conduct a layer-wise and geometric analysis of LLM hidden representations across four model families, examining how models distinguish literal vs figurative uses of the same noun and how concreteness is organized in representation space. We find that LLMs separate literal and figurative usage in early layers, and that mid-to-late layers compress concreteness into a one-dimensional direction that is consistent across models. Finally, we show that this geometric structure is practically useful: a single concreteness direction supports efficient figurative-language classification and enables training-free steering of generation toward more literal or more figurative rewrites.
The subject of this study is the interpretation of the tonality of Russian media speech within the context of the Chinese linguistic tradition. The object of analysis is Russian media speech as a set of discourse practices and linguistic means shaping the evaluative perspective of contemporary public communication. The paper examines lexical-semantic markers of tonality, pragmatic mechanisms of its construction, and culturally conditioned models of media text reception. Particular attention is given to differences in expressiveness, negative evaluation, and norms of categorical stance in Russian and Chinese linguistic traditions. The study explores how tonality functions as an integrative parameter of media discourse and how it is reinterpreted in intercultural interaction, leading to stable interpretative shifts in Chinese reception of Russian media texts. The methodological framework combines discourse analysis, the comparative method, and pragmalinguistic analysis to identify the institutional conditioning of tonality and the mechanisms of its intercultural interpretation. The novelty of the study lies in conceptualizing the tonality of Russian media speech as a culturally sensitive functional-pragmatic category shaped by differing models of public evaluation and pragmatic expectations. The findings show that interpretative shifts stem not from factual distortion but from differences in categorical thresholds, evaluative explicitness, and conflict conceptualization. Russian media speech tends toward explicit evaluation and polarization, whereas the Chinese communicative model favors contextuality and harmonization. The results refine the theoretical status of tonality in media discourse and contribute to intercultural media linguistics, with implications for communication, translation, and language teaching.
According to an act-based conception of propositions, propositions are types of cognitive or linguistic acts. Such accounts are advertised as having major metaphysical and epistemological advantages over traditional platonic accounts. However, existing versions of such accounts appeal to platonic properties and relations in order to account for the contents expressed by predicates, reintroducing many of the problems they aim to solve. Characterizing both that a is F and that it's F as different types of ``assertibles'' (the former can be asserted full-stop and the latter can be asserted of things), the issue can be seen as a limitation of existing act-based approaches: they apply only to a restricted class of assertibles. In this paper, I show how adopting a normative functionalist approach to linguistic meaning enables one to generalize the act-based approach to all assertibles such that no appeal to extrinsic properties and relations is needed. I show, further, how this radicalized act-based account provides the resources for a satisfactory account of our knowledge of objective states of affairs, properties, and relations (which I dub ``instantiables'') in terms of our mastery of linguistic norms.
This article examines the role and significance of language corpora and linguistic databases in linguistic expertise. It discusses the possibilities of conducting objective semantic, pragmatic, and stylistic analyses of texts through corpus-based methods. The study also highlights the contribution of linguistic databases and artificial intelligence technologies to improving the accuracy, reliability, and efficiency of expert conclusions. Furthermore, the relevance of developing specialized corpora and databases for forensic linguistics in Uzbekistan is substantiated.
The Core Idea Classical combinatorics counts the number of ways to partition a set of n elements into non-empty blocks. That count is the Bell number B(n), and it depends only on how many elements there are, never on how they relate to each other. This manuscript introduces a strict refinement. Given a connected graph G on n labeled vertices, define a connected set-partition as a partition of V(G) in which every block induces a connected subgraph. The geometric partition function is p₍𝔾₎(G) = |{ {V₁, …, Vₖ}: each G[Vᵢ] is connected }| This count depends on G, not just n. Two graphs on the same number of vertices can have wildly different geometric partition counts. The entire theory follows from taking that dependence seriously. Main Theorems Theorem 1 (Subgraph Lattice Theorem). If G and H share the same vertex set and E(G) ⊆ E(H), then p₍𝔾₎(G) ≤ p₍𝔾₎(H). Adding edges can only increase the connected partition count, never decrease it. Theorem 2 (Tree Evaluation). For any tree T on n vertices, p₍𝔾₎(T) = 2ⁿ⁻¹. Every tree on n vertices, regardless of shape, has exactly the same geometric partition count. This is the universal floor for connected graphs. Theorem 3 (Complete-Graph Evaluation). For Kₙ, p₍𝔾₎(Kₙ) = B(n), the n-th Bell number. When every possible edge is present, every set-partition is automatically connected, so the geometric count recovers the classical count. This is the universal ceiling. Theorem 4 (Cycle Closed Form). For the cycle graph Cₙ with n ≥ 3, p₍𝔾₎(Cₙ) = 2ⁿ − n. This matches OEIS sequence A000325. Corollary (Sandwich Hierarchy). For every connected graph G on n vertices with n ≥ 4: 2ⁿ⁻¹ = p₍𝔾₎(Tₙ) < p₍𝔾₎(Cₙ) = 2ⁿ − n < p₍𝔾₎(Kₙ) = B(n) Both inequalities are strict. Trees sit at the floor, complete graphs at the ceiling, and the cycle sits strictly between them. What the Numbers Look Like For cycles versus trees versus complete graphs: n = 5: Tree = 16, Cycle = 27, Complete = 52 n = 6: Tree = 32, Cycle = 58, Complete = 203 n = 7: Tree = 64, Cycle = 121, Complete = 877 n = 8: Tree = 128, Cycle = 248, Complete = 4,140 n = 10: Tree = 512, Cycle = 1,014, Complete = 115,975 The gap between floor and ceiling grows super-exponentially. At n = 10, the complete graph has 227× more connected partitions than a tree on the same vertices. At fixed n, different topologies produce sharply different counts. At n = 6 for example: P₆ = 32 < C₆ = 58 < Ladder = 74 < Fan = 89 < K₂,₄ = 96 < Prism = 114 < W₆ = 118 < K₆ = 203 The ordering tracks graph density with Spearman ρ = +0.955 (p < 10⁻⁶) across all tested sizes n = 4 through n = 10. The Connection Curvature Define the partition connection on cycles as Γₙ = p₍𝔾₎(Cₙ₊₁) / p₍𝔾₎(Cₙ). The curvature κₙ = Γₙ − 2 measures deviation from the flat tree-growth rate: κₙ = (n − 1) / (2ⁿ − n) This is strictly positive and monotonically decaying to zero: n = 3: κ = 0.4000 n = 5: κ = 0.1481 n = 7: κ = 0.0496 n = 10: κ = 0.0089 The cycle approaches tree-like growth exponentially fast. The successive ratio κₙ / κₙ₋₁ converges toward ½ from above. Empirical Validation Program The deposit includes a preregistered validation suite with predeclared falsifiers, frozen metrics, and external ground truth. All outcomes, including failures, are retained as first-class results. Test 1 (OEIS Path Recursion). Brute-force enumeration confirms p₍𝔾₎(Pₙ) = 2ⁿ⁻¹ for n = 1 through 20. The sequence matches OEIS A000079 (powers of 2) exactly. Algebraic DP and direct bitmask enumeration agree at every tested value. Test 2b (Same-n Topology Comparison). At each n from 4 to 10, connected graphs on the same vertex count were compared. Spearman rank correlation between vertex connectivity and p₍𝔾₎ is ρ ≥ 0.83 at every tested n. Pooled edge-density correlation: ρ = 0.955 with p < 10⁻⁶. Negative control (max degree): ρ ≈ 0.35, not significant at any n. The lattice theorem's monotonicity prediction holds empirically, and counterexamples to vertex-connectivity ordering exist only between spanning-subgraph-incomparable pairs, exactly as the theory permits. Test 4 (Internet Autonomous Systems, 2010–2024). Using 180 monthly CAIDA BGP snapshots: AS count grew from 33,778 to 77,495 while edges grew from 93,998 to 501,473. The edge-succession to vertex-succession ratio Sₑ/Sᵥ increased with a linear slope of 3.68 per year, R² = 0.88, p = 2.23 × 10⁻⁷, Spearman ρ = 0.968. The pre-registered threshold was a slope above 0.05. The observed slope is 73× that threshold. Edge growth dominates vertex growth in a real infrastructure graph, consistent with the lattice theorem's prediction that denser graphs have exponentially more connected partitions. Test 5 (OpenAlex Citation Subgraphs). Among 10,000 co-citation subgraphs from 2020–2024: only 3 out of 10,000 were path graphs (0.03%). Among connected subgraphs, paths were 0.47%. For n ≥ 7, zero path graphs appeared among 527 connected subgraphs. Real citation networks avoid the tree floor almost entirely. Test 6/6b (Universal Dependencies Treebanks). The primary test fired its falsifier: English had 19.63% path-topology sentences, exceeding the 10% threshold. However, the pre-registered follow-up (Test 6b) conditioning on n ≥ 5 tokens found all six languages below 10%, with a maximum of 1.57% (Russian). At n ≥ 7 tokens, all languages drop below 0.15%. Short sentences are path-like; longer sentences are not. Test 7 (C. elegans Connectome). 279 neurons, 1,961 synapses. The biological network sits near the tree floor: 81% of 4-vertex connected induced subgraphs achieve p₍𝔾₎ = 2ⁿ⁻¹ exactly. KS tests showed no significant difference from Erdős–Rényi at matched density. Pre-registered hypothesis not supported. The sandwich bound is tight in sparse biological networks. Test 10 (Crystallographic Space Groups). Commutation graphs of all 230 space groups tested against a Ramsey proxy bound. The bound holds for 230/230 groups (100%). Saturation target (≥ 3 groups at n = 5 with zero triangles and zero independent triples) was not achieved. Verdict: partial. Tests 2, 8 (Falsifier Fired). Cycloalkane ring strain shows no monotonic observable matching p₍𝔾₎ (Pearson r = −0.11, p = 0.79). KEGG metabolic pathways achieved 14/18 hits for the Sₑ ≥ 2 × Sᵥ criterion versus a target of 15. Both failures are preserved in the record. Validation Ledger Supported: Tests 2b, 4, 5, 6b (4 of 10 completed tests) Falsifier fired: Tests 1 (by design), 2, 6, 8 (4 of 10) Not supported: Test 7 (1 of 10) Partial: Test 10 (1 of 10) Blocked/Deferred: Tests 9, 11 Negative and null results are first-class outcomes, not omissions. The program-level verdict is assessed across the full ledger, not cherry-picked from successes. Limitations Some tests depend on external APIs (OpenAlex, CAIDA, KEGG) whose upstream data evolves. Test 9 is blocked by endpoint observability constraints. This archive captures a dated snapshot; future reruns under changed data conditions should be treated as independent replications, not as invalidations. Citation Cite the Zenodo DOI for this archived package and the manuscript title. If reusing specific test scripts or results, cite the relevant script and JSON artifact in your methods section.
This paper presents the steps taken to integrate data from the UD_Latin-PROIEL treebank into the LiLa Knowledge Base of interoperable linguistic resources for Latin.It describes how the lexical, morphological, syntactic, and citation information from the source was modeled using the Linked Open Data principles as adopted by the LiLa Knowledge Base.The process of linking tokens to the LiLa collection of Latin lemmas is detailed, addressing challenges such as ambiguities, new lemmas, and errors encountered in the source.The outcome is a syntactically annotated textual resource that is interoperable with the (meta)data of other Latin linguistic resources linked within the LiLa Knowledge Base.This integration enables new ways of analyzing linguistic information and using the content as a starting point to explore connections with other interlinked resources.A use case demonstrates this interoperability.