Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
16504 papers
Music is a complex phenomenon that elicits a range of emotional responses, influenced by numerous variables, such as rhythm, melody and harmony. One interesting aspect of music is listeners' ability to predict its continuation as it unfolds - an inherent attribute hypothesized to contribute to our emotional response to music. In this study, we investigated this link by examining the relationship between temporal predictability - the ability to predict the timing of the next event - and the ongoing changes in music-induced pleasantness. Temporal predictability was operationalized as the degree to which taps of 20 musically trained participants, who tapped to the beat along three naturalistic and highly contrastive musical pieces, were aligned. We then examined the degree to which this measure could explain the ongoing emotional experience, as reflected in continuous measures of arousal and valence, in a separate group of 40 participants that listened to these pieces. Our findings reveal a positive correlation between fluctuations in reported valence and temporal predictability, even when controlling for a set of other musical features, in four out of five musical sections. The only exception being a lyrical slow section. These findings were further supported by a large online database of annotated musical emotions (n = 1780 songs), where a consistent and robust correlation between valence ratings and an automatically extracted feature of pulse clarity was demonstrated. Overall, our findings shed light on the significance of temporal predictability as a contributing factor to the hedonic experience of music, especially within the tempo range of salient beat perception.
Speech is the most efficient and frequently used mode of language expression. Speech rate is assumed to reflect the speed at which an individual executes articulatory movements for speech production. Speech rate is typically estimated from samples of connected speech spoken spontaneously or read. Rate of speech is an important variable in the assessment and treatment of fluency disorder. It can be affected by a number of factors which include gender, age, language, dialects, psychological aspects and physical aspects. It may also depend upon the culture and linguistic structure. Language encodes the values and norms in a given society. The relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted. A dialect represents a distinct variation of a major language that is spoken by an identifiable subgroup of those people using that language. The variation might be phonological, lexical, or grammatical. Malayalam is a Dravidian language in India, spoken by peoples in the state of Kerala with a number of Dialect. Dialects in Malayalam can be broadly classified into three. They are Travancore dialect, Central dialect, Northern dialect. In Malayalam there are five main regional dialects and many number of communal dialects. Each dialect has different variation in stress, intonation and rhythm. The variations in language can affect rate of speech. The aim of study was to compare the speech rate in different dialects of Malayalam between the age-range of 15-55years. The result indicated significant difference in the rate of speech across the three dialects. The result of the present study, profiles the average rate of speech of young adults and older adults which can be used for the assessment and diagnosis for fluency disorders.
The appearance of cyberneologisms in the language is a natural reaction to the emergence of new concepts and definitions that reflect the constantly changing reality, requiring the introduction of definitions and definitions, without which modern business discourse is not possible. The urgency of the problem is related to the need to replenish the language new lexical units and designations, differentiation of emerging processes, definitions, development of a practical and theoretical base, introducing innovations into international practice, cooperation, as well as with the rules and norms of communication. The purpose of this article is to consider trends in word formation, the practical use of new lexical units, the reflection of these changes in modern business discourse, and also to assess the need for these terms in modern international cooperation. The object of analysis in this scientific work was English cyberneologisms from the “Business” section, which are widely used in articles of leading English-language media, such as “Financial Times”, “The Economist”, “The Washington Post”, legal documents and agreements, as well as the Internet-materials.
Emotional prospective mental imagery, in which we simulate possible future events within our minds, have a pronounced impact on behavior. For example, repeated engagement in positive prospective imagery can lead to behavioral activation, while negative prospective imagery can lead to catastrophizing and avoidance. Physiological arousal boosts memory consolidation, creating emotional memories. Thus, if emotional prospective imagery produces an arousal response, the memory consolidation of these simulations of the future may be boosted, offering a possible underlying mechanism for the impact of emotional prospective imagery on behavior. In order to examine the feasibility of arousal as a possible mechanism behind the impact of emotional prospective imagery on behavior, sixty participants produced autobiographical prospective imagery of 30 scenes (10 positive, 10 neutral, and 10 negative), during which arousal responses (skin conductance) were measured, and ratings for subjective arousal, valence, and imagery vividness were collected. Moreover, because vividness of prospective imagery has been related to anxiety and depression, the study examined this relation also for event-related autobiographical prospective imagery. The results showed that emotional prospective imagery were associated with higher subjective arousal ratings as compared to neutral imagery. Physiological arousal responses showed a similar pattern, but further data is needed for a firm conclusion. Nevertheless, arousal-boosted consolidation remains a possible contributing mechanism for the impact of emotional prospective imagery on behavior. Moreover, results suggest both anxiety and depression may entail a reduced ability to invent prospective life situations. However, only anxiety was associated with less vivid imaginations, unless the imaginations were of negative content. Hence, anxious individuals may experience negative prospective imagery more vividly than imagery with neutral and positive content.
<strong>Abstract</strong> The article deals with the problem of forming the language competence of future students of elementary school at the lexical level within the higher educational institution. The requirements, which put society in front of modern teacher of elementary school, are studied. The types of lexical mistakes that are reflected in the speech of modern students are highlighted. The reasons of violations of lexical norms at the level of oral and written speech of future specialists are found out. <strong>Анотація</strong> У статті досліджено проблему формування мовної компетентності майбутніх учителів початкової школи на лексичному рівні в межах вищого навчального закладу. Вивчено вимоги, які ставить суспільство перед сучасним учителем початкової школи. Висвітлено типи лексичних помилок, які відбито в мовленні сучасних студентів. З’ясовано причини порушення лексичних норм на рівні усного та писемного мовлення майбутніх фахівців.r
Abstract Listening to music is an enjoyable behaviour that engages multiple networks of brain regions. As such, the act of music listening may offer a way to interrogate network activity, and to examine the reconfigurations of brain networks that have been observed in healthy aging. The present study is an exploratory examination of brain network dynamics during music listening in healthy older and younger adults. Network measures were extracted and analyzed together with behavioural data using a combination of hidden Markov modelling and partial least squares. We found age- and preference-related differences in fMRI data collected during music listening in healthy younger and older adults. Both age groups showed higher occupancy (the proportion of time a network was active) in a temporal-mesolimbic network while listening to self-selected music. Activity in this network was strongly positively correlated with liking and familiarity ratings in younger adults, but less so in older adults. Additionally, older adults showed a higher degree of correlation between liking and familiarity ratings consistent with past behavioural work on age-related dedifferentiation. We conclude that, while older adults do show network and behaviour patterns consistent with dedifferentiation, activity in the temporal-mesolimbic network is relatively robust to dedifferentiation. These findings may help explain how music listening remains meaningful and rewarding in old age.
With the technological benefits and challenges computer-mediated communication provides, interactants in social network service (SNS) communication are driven to use language creatively, overcoming the disadvantages and exploiting advantages. This creative language use leads to innovative language change that often extends beyond SNS environments. In this regard, the medium is not merely a restrictive but also a facilitative factor. Communicative acts are fundamentally bound by the interactants’ desire to express politeness, especially in face-threatening acts, well articulated in Brown and Levinson’s (1987) model. In recent research, however, the issues of the norms of politeness and impoliteness as well as those of appropriateness have been highlighted (Locher Watts 2005, Locher Bousfield 2008). Interactants employ not only mitigating strategies to alleviate face-threatening but also use impoliteness strategies, which are often disguised politeness. Drawing upon the data from a 26-million-word corpus of synchronous SNS communication, involving two or more participants, in 3,836 instances, developed by the National Institute of the Korean Language, this paper addresses how SNS interactants make use of diverse elements of language to show their polite and impolite stances in interpersonal negotiation. For instance, interactants use fragments, interjections, letter-based ideophones and emoticons, exaggerated punctuations for emotiveness, omission of regular punctuation marks, intentional violation of orthographic rules, prolific slang expressions, deviated spelling to create cuteness or intimacy, among numerous others. All these creative strategies lead to language change at lexical, grammatical and discourse levels.
The article discusses the relationship between the concepts of synonymy and paronymy, as well as the functioning in the language of prefixal verbal paronyms. The definition of paronyms as common-rooted words with different affixes, which are regularly misused in speech as synonyms, is clarified. Some verbs on the synchronic level may be considered as synonyms or as paronyms, depending on the focus of the speaker’s or listener’s attention. As for the diachronic aspect of language study, there are processes of synonymization of common-root prefixal verbs, associated mainly with hypo-hyperonymic relations between lexical units. The possibility of synonymous use of common-root words is determined by the proximity of prefixes’ meanings, neutralization of the context and the norm’s inattention to changes in usage. The norm can either leave unnoticed the appearance of a new way of expressing linguistic meaning, or mark the changes in dictionaries, fixing the word as a synonym. Sometimes it can also insist on the preservation of paronymic distinctions even when there are already no such distinctions in usage. Thus, the paronyms remain the common-rooted words, which, mixing in speech usage, draw the norm’s attention to themselves.
The article analyses the system of folk knowledge, representing white and black in the composition of toponyms. Rational and irrational types of knowledge are distinguished. Rational knowledge covers different aspects of economic and practical life in a nomadic society in a developing environment and contains empirical information saturated with a variety of cultural semantics. The irrational type of education concentrates systems of values, stereotypes, spiritual, moral and ethical norms of the nomadic Kazakh ethnos, embodied in the linguistic matrix, cultural semantics of folk geographical names. The irrational form of popular education reflects mythological, esoteric, animistic, religious notions, customs and folk beliefs, the ethno-semantics of which have deep roots. Rational knowledge, concentrated in the semantics of geographical names, contains information about the surrounding world, "hidden", embedded in the code of modern linguistic and cultural society, concerning nomads' daily, economical and practical life. The linguistic matrix of toponyms reflects the ethno-ecological and ethnobotanical cognitions of the population. Therefore, the article examines the conventional lexical-semantic features of toponyms and the cultural-linguistic semantics associated with ethnic culture in their content. The relevance of the research is predetermined by the need to make the same cultural information and knowledge available to native speakers in the structure of toponymic semantics. The relevance of the topic is also related to the need to increase the cumulative potential of language and anemic names. After all, over time, they can be erased from the collective memory of the people. For the first time, the linguistic matrix of toponyms presents the ethnoecological, ethnobotanical knowledge of the Kazakh people, in which the emphasis is shifted not to lexica-semantic, word-formation, etymological features of toponyms, but to the cultural aspect, to ethnocultural semantics. The article uses the method that reveals topological characteristics of toponyms with the adjectives white and black in their composition, as well as the method of linguistic matrix, which allows identifying ethno-cultural component in the underlying semantics of geographical names.
The article deals with the study of lexical and grammatical features of the English slang.The authors note that slang is a special type of speech activity that arises in a certain social community and is characterized by the use of non-traditional words, expressions and constructions.The article finds that Internet slang is often formed by shortening words, using abbreviations, symbols, as well as using language games, imitations and hints.Special attention is paid to the grammatical features of the formation of Internet slang, such as the use of incorrect word forms, changing the order of words in a sentence, creating new grammatical constructions, and other phenomena.The authors emphasize that Internet slang is an integral part of communication in social networks, it is used to express emotions, indicate certain group affiliations and create a specific language environment; ways of forming Internet slang include a variety of lexical, grammatical and stylistic techniques that vary depending on the context and purpose of use; grammatical features of the formation of Internet slang are manifested in the use of incorrect forms of words, changes in grammatical constructions and deviations from the standard language norm; methods of lexical and grammatical analysis are effective for the study of Internet slang, as they allow to find out the lexical-semantic features of words and their grammatical context.The article examines the semantics of these words, analyzes possible polysemantics, defines their synonyms, antonyms, and homonyms.Attention is also paid to the semantic and emotional loading of these words, which makes it possible to understand their use and contextual meaning.With the help of grammatical analysis, the morphological characteristics of words were determined, their ways of word formation were clarified, and their possible syntactic role in the sentence was analyzed.This analysis helps to understand the peculiarities of the construction of words in Internet slang and their interaction with other linguistic units.
This study outlines a comprehensive analysis of word-formation models of the Japanese youth sociolect as the most active channel for the creation and dissemination of linguistic innovations. Youth word formation 「若者語の造 語法」 [wakamonogo no zougoho] is considered in the article from the point of view of deviations from the established norms of the common Japanese language, which has its own rules of word formation and is based on a creative approach with the involvement of common language resources. Word formation, as a source of replenishment of youth vocabulary, has nominative and emotional-expressive functions. For the first time, an attempt is made to systematise lexical items of the youth sociolect in accordance with the word-formation structure of the Japanese language. The study reveals and analyses the sequences in the word formation system of the youth sociolect in comparison with the sequences of the normative system of the Japanese language. The ways of word formation in the youth language and the degree of their productivity are investigated, focusing on the morphological and lexical-semantic productive levels of word formation, with examples of actual/real use. The analysis of the factual material has shown that the most productive ways of youth word formation are word-formation models at the morphological level: abbreviations, affixal word formation, English borrowings, word compounding, word-formation techniques of “word play”; and at the lexical and semantic level: metaphors and metonymy. The high productivity of the above word-formation forms of the Japanese youth sociolect is explained by the simplicity of deformation of words that create a stylistically understated effect and carry an emotional and evaluative component in their structure. The analysis of the word formation of the modern youth sociolect is quite appropriate and promising in predicting the process of change and enrichment of the normative Japanese language. The systematisation of youth word formation methods opens up new perspectives in the study of word formation innovations and expands the understanding of the linguistic picture of the world of modern Japanese youth.
where language is affected by many psychological socio-cultural factors. This paper investigates the use of codes in win literature tackling a set of variables that affect identity. To produce a v detailed description of the linguistic identity, a qualitative research methoc adapted to check language performance in written texts in which the ident variable acts as a challenging factor. It is affirmed that the social norms are o of the most influential variables that affect the writers intentions and styl dealing with syntactical. phonological or lexical consumptions that dominate th literary production and reflect one's notion of identity
Modern realities are such that Internet discourse should be given special attention.On the one hand, it covers most of our modern life, on the other hand, it often violates not only linguistic norms, but also ethical postulates, which is explained by negative trends in society, neglect of cultural foundations and eternal values.The situation requires an immediate solution, in connection with which there is an urgent need to consider the problem of communication on the Internet and the purity of the native language.It is important to monitor the quality of linguistic communication, especially in the context of digital interaction, since in the modern context it occupies a huge, significant niche and it is an indicator of the diseases of society that must be eliminated.The subject of the study is modern communication in various social networks, as well as various online publications that cover current events.The object of the study is the Russian language, lexical units, as well as invective vocabulary, which is observed in modern Internet discourse.The relevance of the study lies in the urgent need to highlight the problems of verbal communication on the Internet, prescribing appropriate rules and norms of adequate communication to the Internet discourse, eliminating grammatical and lexical errors in messages.The novelty of the study lies in the development of a number of recommendations for the purification of the Russian language from language and speech units that do not meet ethical standards, observed in modern Internet communication.The work is recommended for teachers, CITISE http://ma123.ruЦИТИСЭ №1 (35) 2023
Introduction. Today, in the modern Ukrainian literary language, colloquial speech is a source of active use of words, forms and syntactic constructions. This is accompanied by the destruction of standard schemes that organize the structure of the sentence. As a result, new, not similar to traditional, actualized types of expression, built on the phenomena of syntactic redistribution, separation of some components, etc., appear. Thanks to the dismemberment of a typical sentence, variations of different lexical-semantic nuances of meanings that arise as a result of figurative and aesthetic concretization and individualization of content sections become possible. It has been observed that one of the urgent problems of modern linguistic research is the specificity of functioning in the artistic text of incomplete sentences, which are traditionally interpreted as deviations from the norm with one or more members missing, which can be implied from the context or speech situation. The study of sentence syntax is extremely relevant, as it helps to learn the forms of organization of extended constructions, features of the structure of statements and the text. It was found that the structural incompleteness of the sentences is stylistically motivated. The greater semantic and stylistic load of other elements of this sentence and the general expression of the syntactic structure compensates the special omission of any element in the composition of the sentence. Therefore, introducing an incomplete sentence into the text, the author focuses attention on the semantic and stylistic direction of the sentence or its individual places. It is proved that incomplete sentences are a peculiar phenomenon of the modern Ukrainian language with stable functional and stylistic parameters. They are one of the most characteristic features of colloquial speech and are often used by writers precisely for the purpose of stylization, among which is the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo, a master of the Ukrainian word among Ukrainian writers of the 1960s, a poet, novelist and publicist. The original and genre-stylistic diverse work of the Ukrainian writer Yevhen Hutsalo has been of interest to researchers of different generations for more than one decade. The artist's creativity is quite difficult to perceive if the reader is not able to read between the lines the real idea skillfully hidden under ordinary words. Yevhen Hutsalo’s linguistic skill is in creating new and using already known linguistic means in semantic and grammatical directions uncharacteristic for them. It was found that expressive constructions expressed by incomplete sentences require special attention. Purpose. The purpose of the research is to determine the features of the incomplete sentence as a means of expressive syntax, to find out the varieties and specificity, the frequency of their functioning in the prose language for children by Yevhen Hutsalo. Working with the article, we outlined the following tasks: to investigate the semantic and syntactic organization of an incomplete sentence; to analyze the structural and semantic features of an incomplete sentence based on the material of Yevhen Hutsalo’s works for children; to determine the frequency of use of incomplete sentences in Yevhen Hutsalo's prose works for children compared to complete structures using the example of the story "Denysko"; to indicate the expressive potential of incomplete syntactic units, which is achieved with the help of such sentences in the writer's artistic text. Methods. The article uses the methods of analysis of linguistic phenomena, thanks to which the theoretical foundations of the study of the problem of incomplete sentences are summarized and specified, the terminological definitions of the phenomena of incomplete sentences are analyzed, commented on and distinguished. The method of statistical analysis of incomplete sentences in the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo was used. Results. The frequency of use of incomplete sentences in the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo is summarized. Incomplete sentences with the omission of the subject were found to be the most frequent, the less frequently used circumstances were incomplete structures with the omission of the predicate, very few were sentences with a non-verbal object. Originality. Incomplete sentences are an integral element of the structure of an artistic text. The extent of the load carried by incomplete sentences in the artistic texts of the language of works for children, the frequency of their use in the ideal style of the famous Ukrainian writer Yevhen Hutsalo has not yet been the object of close attention of researchers, therefore the consideration of such incomplete structures is quite relevant. Conclusion. Incomplete sentences are a separate structural and semantic type of syntactic constructions, which has all the categories and features of a sentence, so they should not be considered as “insufficient” units, etc. The specificity of incomplete sentences is insufficiently studied both in theory and in practical implementation in speech. We see the perspective of the research in the further analysis of the actual material and in-depth study of the features of such units of expressive syntax in various texts of artistic style.
In this paper, a linguistic analysis of the Itinerarium Egeriae, one of the oldest documented Christian pilgrimages to the eastern Mediterranean, is presented. The aim of the work is to present characteristics related to Vulgar Latin. The linguistic analysis is focused on characteristics which are not in keeping with classical norms, in an attempt to describe certain changes with regard to Classical Latin and traditional grammar, which may cause difficulty for the reader. It is evident that the Itinerarium Egeriae is not characterized by ornate expression like the texts of classical writers, but it offers interesting, if sometimes confusing, deviations from classical norms. The paper is divided into two parts. In the first section Egeria, the purpose of the trip, the text, the author’s ability to observe, and her style aimed at spiritual instruction are presented. Egeria’s style of Latin are the subject of the second and main section of the work, which includes language, style, literary aspect and phonological, morphological, syntactic and lexical characteristics of travel writing.
This article continues the study of the problem of systemic reconstruction of legal norms (See: Voronin, M. V., Avramenko, A. V., Belous, A. A. (2022). Systematic reconstruction of legal norms: needs, methodology, prospects. Legal world, 9, 30-38).
 The aim of the present article is to develop and describe a method of systemic reconstruction of legal norms in its linguistic aspect to solve the problem of converting legal texts in natural language into a database. The advantage of the method is a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach that combines jurisprudence, linguistics and subject matter expertise. This approach ensures high quality of the converted data.
 Drawing on the case of The Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), the substantial factors that make it difficult to interpret unambiguously the regulatory material are analyzed; with these factors in view, a model of a formalized wording is proposed. The model makes it possible to present normative material in a standardized form and to combine it into a database. Based on the reconstruction experience of the Rules of GMP, lexical and syntactic transformations of the source text, as well as typical semantic tasks that the expert solves at the synthesis stage are described. The article shows the effectiveness of transformational grammar rules at that stage to achieve semantic equivalence of the original and transformed textual information within the framework of the described method.
 The method of systemic reconstruction in its linguistic aspect is significant for further work related to improving the language of technical regulations.
This paper deals with the peculiarities of language code choice as a means of national self-expression in the Arabic social media humour (in particular, in memes and jokes). In the globalized online communities, humour can play a pivotal role for the rapprochement of in-group members based on a certain type of their identity (national, social, gender, etc.). In this study, the notion of Arab national identity refers to the entire Ummah and, on the other hand, to the representatives of different Arab countries as well. It is reflected on the Arabic language variation online and beyond. This research revealed diverse language attitudes conveyed within the “self – other” binary opposition. The analysis of over 1,000 online posts (Egyptian, Iraqi, Moroccan, and other) showed that the commonality with the in-group members is expressed with the language code which is considered the closest for the recipients. It is indicated to the predominance of colloquial varieties (territorial dialects, sociolects, youth slang) with the variation in their written transmission. Modern Standard Arabic is used as well, sometimes with minor deviations from the norm or with the colloquial lexis insertions. Both explicit and implicit lexical tools (colloquial and slang words, precedent lexis, etc.) are utilized to stress the uniqueness of “self”. Different codes are used to create the contrast between “self” (all Arabs / a certain Arab country) and “other” (all non-Arabs / the West / a certain Arab or non-Arab country, etc.). The studied varieties were also affected by the sociocultural context, topics of posts, communicants’ situational roles, the technology, and so forth. The results of this investigation ascertained that the Arabic language form used in the humorous posts is an integral part of the communicants’ identity as it demonstrates their belonging to a national group with its specific sociocultural, political, and historical background.
Based on a retrospective analysis of the academic discourse of several decades, the article shows that the term
 “speech competence” has not received a commonly accepted definition, especially when it comes to the preschool age.
 The study conducted by the authors has made it possible to determine the phenomenological characteristics of the preschoolers’
 speech competence, considering it as a dynamic integral personal quality, manifested in the ability and willingness
 to successfully listen, perceive and reproduce information, be engaged in conversation, express personal opinions
 and points of view in the oral form in accordance with the age norm. Its lexical, phonological, grammatical, dialogical
 and monological functional components have been identified and defined subject to pedagogical impact. These components
 contain operational characteristics of the speech competence of preschoolers. The speech competence of preschool
 children includes also the following meta-components: awareness of the ways and means of speech interaction; adequacy
 of selection of available speech skills, their application in speech activity; orientation in a communication situation;
 complex, variable and creative application of speech and non-speech means in accordance with the set goal. Following
 the internal structure of the speech competence of preschool children in the educational process should make it more
 systematic and the results of this process easier to measure in their complex, integrative wholeness.
Background and Aim: Speech perception is an important auditory need. A test that can evaluate the function of the auditory brain in discovering consonants and understanding meanings in Persian language is necessary. Therefore, this study aims to determine the norm values of the Word-in-Noise Perception (WINP) test for Iranian people aged 18–25 years. Methods: In this study, participants were 101 people with normal hearing, stress level, night sleep, and mini-mental states. The measures were the 28-item general health questionnaire, mini-mental state examination, Petersburg sleep quality index, acoustic immittance assessment, pure tone audiometry, speech reception threshold evaluation, and the WINP test with Homotonic-Monosyllabic Words (HMWs). Data analysis was performed using the Mann-Whitney U test. Results: The mean scores of the WINP test at three Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNRs) of 0, +5, +10 dB were 53.14%, 68.15%, 88.70% for the right ear; 52.95%, 67.83%, 88.13% for the left ear; and 53%, 68%, 88% for both ears, respectively. The mean scores of the right ear were higher than those of the left ear, and the women’s scores were higher compared to men; however, the differences were not statically significant. Conclusion: By using the WINP test with the HMWs, it is possible to evaluate the function of the auditory brain in understanding the consonants in Persian language. The WINP test scores are similar between both ears and both sexes. Keywords: Speech perception; noise; lexical; semantic
Abstract The variety of Italian spoken in Bolzano (South Tyrol) represents a singular case in Italy, because it is not the result of a long-term contact between standard and Italo-Romance dialects but rather the outcome of a process of levelling and koineization. In such sociolinguistic scenario, it is interesting to study phonological variability in Bolzano Italian with the aim of understanding which language varieties have possibly played a role as models from a sociolinguistic point of view. The purpose of our exploratory study is to characterize this variety within the spectrum of variation between the standard and the regional norm. In our analysis, we will focus on the set of mid vowels as a window to understand which variety of Italian BI most closely resembles. Through a corpus-based analysis, we will investigate the phonological distribution of mid vowels (for both Italian and Tyrolean speakers), in order to explore whether it can be explained on the basis of a contextual or a lexical distribution.
This research paper investigates the function of diminutive morphology in English and Urdu languages with a focus on production, similarities, and differences in inflectional bound morphemes in the noun and adjective categories, and studies the usage patterns and impacts of diminutive forms in Urdu and English on interpersonal communication. The researchers, who are native Urdu speakers and English as a second language speakers, analyze the form and meaning of diminutive morphemes in both languages using Booij’s (2018) Construction Morphology model. Multiple sources are consulted for data collection, including corpora, dictionaries, linguistic databases, literary works, and language resources. The findings suggest that both English and Urdu retain a morphological function, but English has fewer inflectional morphemes than Urdu. Conversely, Urdu employs a large variety of suffixes, particularly for denoting the diminutive aspect, which distinguishes its semantic and pragmatic expressions from those of English. Despite both languages having inflections and using gradient production, English has lost more inflections due to undergoing more periods of change. Further, the usage patterns and impacts of diminutive forms in Urdu and English contribute to the richness and complexity of interpersonal communication. These provide speakers with a range of linguistic resources to express nuances of meaning, convey emotions, and shape social interactions. The paper concludes by noting that this research can help language learners and language scholars better understand the complexities of morphological structures in languages.
The article is devoted to the relationship between the linguistic and cultural aspects of communicative behavior and their consideration in the content of teaching Russian as a foreign language. The object of our study is the norms and traditions of everyday behavior of Russian and Chinese culture representatives in the field of public food service. The purpose of the study is to compare Russian and Chinese traditions of communicative behavior in the gastronomic field, to determine the level of ethnocultural and linguistic knowledge of international students in this study area, to identify the relationship between their level of knowledge and the development of the students’ intercultural communicative competence, which is an integral characteristic of the personality. We aim to substantiate the need to take into account the features of the national communicative behavior in the field of public food service in the content of teaching the Russian language to Chinese students. The study was conducted using the methods of the analysis of scientific and educational literature on the research problem, the survey of 962 students from higher educational institutions of China, mathematical processing of the obtained data and a comparative analysis. Quantitative and substantive processing of the survey data showed considerable differences in the norms and traditions of Russian and Chinese culture representatives in this study area, a low level of students’ ethnocultural knowledge, a high level of students’ lexical knowledge in the field of public food service and cultural barriers affecting the level of Chinese students’ intercultural communicative competence development. The article comes to the conclusion about the need to take into account the communicative-behavioral aspect of everyday life culture and the norms and traditions of Russian and Chinese cultures in the field of public food service in teaching Russian as a foreign language. Research prospects are connected with the development of the educational interactive platform “Gastronomic trip through time”.
The aim of the study is to identify the innovative methods of artistic cognition characteristic of poets in the postmodern era. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that the author identifies such methods of artistic cognition as artistic fractal, chaotic thinking, cognition through linguistic structure and interaction with the reader, the functioning of which is considered based on the American language poetry of the late 20th century. The specific characteristics of the postmodern poets’ creative thinking, expressed in a special language of lyrical texts, are determined. As a result, it has been found that the chaotic nature of modern creative thinking is realized by such linguistic means as paradox, oxymoron, paronomasia, an extended metaphor, a semantic flow, a line break, etc. One of the forms of the chaotic nature as a method of artistic cognition are fractals, represented at the structural level as complex graphic systems. Cognition through linguistic structure is realized both at the lexical (paronomasia, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox) and the grammatical (a line break, violation of grammatical norms, use of graphic symbols and drawings) level. Interaction with the reader is carried out in the course of solving logical riddles represented by paradoxes.
The article is devoted to the study of the mechanisms of the secondary nomination of the qualitatively categorical paradigm through the prism of cognition, the choice of linguistic tools in particular, and the influence of linguistic personality in general. Issues of the bilateral relationship and mutual influence of the culture and language of the ethnic group, the formation of conceptual and linguistic pictures of world perception are considered. The article analyzes the peculiarities of the formation of lexical innovations in the modern Ukrainian language to denote different domains of the concept of "war". It traces lexical-semantic shifts influenced by the judgment of military aggression and criticism of political and war crimes committed by the aggressor country. The scientific research contains the elements of axiology since the linguistic analysis of lexical innovations makes it possible to clarify the mechanisms of verbalization of linguistic consciousness that are impelled by extralinguistic factors and realized with a vivid change of connotation (sometimes from zero) to strongly pejorative. The article emphasizes that the accelerated pace of the appearance of lexical innovations is dictated by the emotional state of native speakers. Therefore the mental basis of nomination is not limited to the laws and extralinguistic reasons for language development and is a category not only of ethnolinguistics but also of psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics, because it is formed through the prism of the cognition of an individual speaker and the whole society. Groups of innovations were identified and analyzed for the indication of the following lexical fields: „country”, „military”, „mobilized”, „politician”, „propagandist”, „weapons”, „attitude to the war”. The evident fact of the dynamics of the status and functions of the Ukrainian language lexical innovations in the conditions of the current Russian-Ukrainian war has been proven. The basis of their emergence has been determined, and the norm, the practice of using innovations, and the ways of their appearance have been outlined.
The article aimed to determine the specificity of computer game discourse, its features, key linguistic characteristics, and communicative features. The methodology included the analysis of computer game discourse materials, in particular, dictionary articles, texts of electronic messages, and computer conferences, as well as recordings of fragments of the spoken language of users and users of computer games. The specific feature of computer discourse is the selective combination of features, typical for other types and forms of communication. Computer discourse has some communicative features: electronic communication channel; mediated communication; distance communication; emotionality transmission through emoji symbols; genre heterogeneity; discourse participants' creativity. Computer discourse is characterized by the dominance of English-language lexical bases (barbarisms and semantic translations) and a tendency to unify the norms and rules of communication. Despite such specificity, computer jargon in its functioning and especially word formation is subject to the laws of the Ukrainian language. In particular, affixal, non-affixal, and lexico-semantic are the most widespread modes of word formation in the computer lexicon. At the same time, lexico-semantic can be combined with other known ways. Computer vocabulary is characterized by the use of speech games and means of speech expression. The key tendency in the formation of computer discourse is to reduce the ways of information transmission as much as possible.
The author argues that modern digital etiquette is in the process of formation and constantly evolving. Old norms of business correspondence do not always align with the current conditions and users’ views on effective and ethical communication. Researchers are faced with the question of what can serve as a source of information on emerging ethical and linguistic norms. The purpose of the article is to prove that the analysis of language reflection can be an effective way to study the norms of modern digital etiquette. The study conducted in the fall of 2022 used the method of analyzing the corpus of language reflection. The dataset obtained through a two-stage survey includes an assessment by 3464 Internet users of 92 formulas and expressions used in digital correspondence. The article analyzes the state of modern digital etiquette, substantiates the need for the analysis of language reflection to study ethical and speech norms, describes the methodology of studying language reflection through surveys, and con cludes on the necessity of analyzing language reflection to capture trends in digital etiquette. The novelty of the article is determined by at least two factors. Firstly, it addresses the topic of unexplored and unstable norms of digital etiquette. Secondly, it highlights the need to analyze language reflection on the rules of speech behavior on the web. The significance of the study is related to the fact that digital etiquette norms are constantly changing, and researchers need a tool to capture such changes. The practical value of the study is that it enables certain recommendations on email etiquette and warns against potential communicative failures in internet communication.
Abstract We describe the first steps in preparation of a treebank of 14 th -century Czech in the framework of Universal Dependencies. The Dresden and Olomouc versions of the Gospel of Matthew have been selected for this pilot study, which also involves modification of the annotation guidelines for phenomena that occur in Old Czech but not in Modern Czech. We describe some of these modifications in the paper. In addition, we provide some interesting observations about applicability of a Modern Czech parser to the Old Czech data.
Aims and Objectives: This study explores Spanish heritage speakers’ (HSs) knowledge of clitic climbing and the (extra-)linguistic factors that modulate it. Design: Heritage speakers of Spanish completed three screening tasks (a background language questionnaire, a productive vocabulary task, and proficiency task) and two experimental tasks (an elicited production task, and a forced choice task) examining their knowledge of clitic climbing in different contexts. Data and Analysis: Thirty-nine participants completed two experimental tasks. Each task included 32 critical items distributed in four conditions. The data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. Findings: Patterns of language exposure and use are a strong predictor for clitic climbing knowledge while the effects of age of onset of bilingualism found contradict our hypothesis. Originality: This study examines production and interpretation data of clitic climbing knowledge in combination with extralinguistic factors that may facilitate heritage language acquisition and maintenance. Sequential bilinguals show a stronger enclisis bias than simultaneous bilinguals. Significance: The results show that, in cases of optionality, self-reported heritage language exposure and use may be a stronger predictor than age of onset of bilingualism of the dominant language. Limitations: This study does not have acceptability data on either grammatical or ungrammatical instances of proclisis or enclisis. In addition, because the test items feature different verbs, no lexical analysis can be conducted. Finally, using an adapted version of the BLP instead of its original normed version restricts opportunities for comparability and reproducibility.
PURPOSE: This study examined the language skills and the type and frequency of disfluencies in the spoken narrative production of typically developing Spanish-English bilingual children. METHOD: A cross-sectional sample of 106 bilingual children (50 boys; 56 girls) enrolled in kindergarten through Grade 4, produced a total of 212 narrative retell language samples in English and Spanish. A specialized fluency coding system was implemented to index the percentage of total (%TD) and stuttering-like disfluencies (%SLD) in each language. Large-scale reference databases were used to classify children's dual language proficiency profiles (balanced, English dominant, Spanish dominant) based on language sample analysis measures of morphosyntax and lexical diversity. RESULTS: The bilingual Spanish-English children in this study did not demonstrate significant cross-linguistic differences for mean %TD or %SLD. However, the mean %TD and %SLD in both languages exceeded the risk threshold based on monolingual English-speaking norms. English dominant bilingual children demonstrated significantly lower %TD in English than Spanish. Spanish dominant children demonstrated significantly lower %SLD in Spanish than English. CONCLUSIONS: This study included the largest sample size of bilingual Spanish-English children investigated to date from a fluency perspective. The frequency of disfluencies was found to be variable across participants and change dynamically as a function of grade and dual language proficiency profiles, indicating the need for studies that employ larger sample sizes and longitudinal designs.
Cariani’s The Modal Future is a book about future language. At its heart is a challenge to the received symmetric picture of temporal language. Many think past tense and future auxiliaries are mirror images of each other: one simply has “later” where the other has “earlier.” The Modal Future aims to supplant this symmetric picture with an asymmetric one, where future thought and talk is modal, and explores issues in the pragmatics, epistemology, and cognition of future claims in the light of this asymmetric picture.Cariani motivates the asymmetric picture with a dilemma. “Will” appears to have properties characteristic of modal expressions. But existing modal accounts face a variety of extremely serious problems. Take the Peircean view, where “will φ” is true at w and t if and only if φ is true in all futures that are possible at w and t. Cariani shows this view makes a mess of our future credences. If I am about to toss a fair coin, what should my credence be that the following is true?(1) The coin will land heads.It is 0.5, of course. But the Peircean predicts it should be 0: I should be certain this universal claim has a counterexample. Cariani argues, convincingly in my view, none of the standard modal views ultimately do better.Cariani’s alternative, building on Cariani and Santorio 2018, is the selection semantics for “will.” This theory draws on the selection functions from Stalnaker’s theory of conditionals, which, given a world and a proposition, select the closest world where that proposition is true. On Cariani’s semantics, “will φ” is true at w just in case φ is true at the selected world with the same history as the actual world. Of course, this selected world just is the actual world, so, in simple unembedded contexts, “will φ” is simply equivalent to φ. (This equivalence is broken in various embedded contexts, such as conditionals, which add further information to input proposition for the selection function.) We get a nice account of the dilemma: “will” is indeed a modal, but its true modal nature is hidden in simple, unembedded claims.After sketching the basic idea, Cariani addresses important technical questions for the semantics. A particularly pressing question is how to secure the future orientation of “will” without disrupting the scope relations between “will” and negation. Cariani solves this issue by adapting Condoravdi 2001 account of future orientation in modals. This involves an event semantics, where verbs quantify over events and tenseless clauses are interpreted relative to worlds and intervals. In this framework, “will” effectively shifts the interval of evaluation: the embedded tenseless clause is evaluated relative to the interval starting at the time of utterance and continuing into the future indefinitely. This accounts for the future orientation of “will” without unwanted scope relations.From here, the book addresses a range of related questions, and the selection semantics becomes an important background assumption. One cluster of issues centers on assertion and the open future. Cariani, who is ultimately agnostic about openness, argues for a conditional claim: if the future is open, we should adopt a particular bivalent approach to openness.Cariani first argues against venerable, Aristotelian approach, where future claims have a third indeterminate truth value, when the future is open. This view faces a puzzle about assertion and the open future. The Aristotelian seems to predict no future contingents are assertable. Truth is a very plausible necessary condition on assertability. But many future contingents are assertable: I can for instance tell my friend that I will be arriving on the 1:30 train.Cariani endorses a bivalent indeterminist Thin Red Line view. On the Thin Red Line view, even when multiple futures are consistent with the present, one particular history has the privilege of being ours. On bivalent indeterminism about the future, future claims have classical truth values, even when they are not settled; it is simply indeterminate which particular classical value they have. So on Cariani’s Thin Red Line view, one history has the privilege of being the one we live in, but it is indeterminate which future is that thin red line is. Unlike other modal views, Cariani’s selection semantics is a good fit for this kind of view.This view has two interesting consequences. First, it is often indeterminate whether one has violated a norm of assertion. When I make my assertion about the train, it is indeterminate whether I have spoken truly, so it is also indeterminate whether I have violated the truth norm. Second, this status will eventually be resolved one way or the other: if the train did arrive on time, my assertion came true and so it is now determinate that the norm was not violated; if it did not arrive on time, it is now determinate the norm was violated. (I did wonder whether the Aristotelian will be satisfied: are future contingents not often determinately assertable at their time of utterance?)The book also deals with the topic of future epistemology and cognition, concluding with a discussion of a puzzle from Ninan 2022. Future claims seem to require weaker evidence to be assertable than past claims. For instance, a meteorologist may be able, on the basis of a century of past weather data, to assert:(2) It will snow in Boston in winter 2023.But once winter 2023 has come and gone, the meteorologist cannot use the same meteorological data to assert:(3) It snowed in Boston in winter 2023To assert (3), they require further direct evidence. This is puzzling—are they not saying the same thing on both occasions?Cariani says they are not. Cariani proposes a lexical account, where predicate meanings place restrictions on the speaker’s evidence. For instance, the semantic value of “died” in a context is treated as a partial function from a world w and individual x to truth values, one which only returns a truth value if the speaker in the context has evidence that settles whether x died in w. Cariani proposes these evidential requirements are removed in certain embeddings, particularly by modals. For instance, “must” clearly removes the evidential requirement: the meteorologist can say(4) It must have snowed in Boston in winter 2023.Given Cariani’s earlier claim that “will” is a modal, the lexical account predicts that (2) does not require the same direct evidence as (3).Every section of this book is deserving of extensive discussion, and, because of the book’s modular structure, one can engage with many of the main claims both individually and as a package. That being said, the claim that “will” is a modal undergirds very much of the discussion. I am convinced that, if “will” is a modal, Cariani’s semantics is the best currently on the market. The guiding idea of the selection semantics idea is ingenious, and the problems for its competitors are extremely serious. But I am not yet completely convinced of the antecedent: is “will” really a modal? I close with some remarks about the argument Cariani regards as the strongest, the argument from modal subordination.Roberts 1989 directed our attention to discourses like:(5) A wolf might come in. It would eat you first.While the second sentence lacks any overt conditional, the modal “would” is understood conditionally: I am saying that if a wolf came in, it would eat you first. This kind of reading prima facie appears to require a modal. Consider:(7)a. If John bought a book at all, it’ll be a mystery novel.b. He’s at home reading it right now.But Klecha 2014 notes that “will” also gives rise to modal subordination:(8) A wolf might come in. It will eat you first.So, the argument concludes, “will” is a modal.But on closer examination the data are messy. First, to my ear, the contrast is strongest in discourses with a mixture of tenses and/or auxiliaries. But a natural hypothesis here is that this mixture of tense and auxiliaries, rather than the absence of “will,” somehow blocks the subordination in (7b).Second, and relatedly, when we consider more uniform discourses, apparent subordination is easier. Cariani acknowledges apparent subordination is possible with the past. Consider:(9) If he went to the park yesterday, he had a sandwich. He enjoyed it.I note that future directed uses of the present also permit apparent subordination:(10) If it doesn’t rain on Monday, we go camping in Yellowstone that evening. We leave Yellowstone early on Tuesday morning.In (9), Cariani suggests that the second sentence is understood as being conjoined to the conditional consequent. But of course this kind of move would explain the original subordination data too.To Cariani’s mind, the most powerful data point is that “will” appears to go in for modal subordination across clause type. Consider:(11) Please do not throw paper towels in the toilet. It will clog.(12) Does Cinderella stay at the ball? The carriage will turn into a pumpkin!The conditional interpretations here cannot be due to conjunction. Furthermore, Cariani argues there are no parallel data when it comes to the past. Imperatives are necessarily future oriented, but past-oriented questions do seem to bear out a contrast, at least initially. Compare (12) to:(13) Did Cinderella stay at the ball? The carriage turned into a pumpkin!I think Cariani is right that subordination is not possible here. But a possible confounder here is that it is not always entirely straightforward to subordinate material from a past tense question, even when “will” is present. Consider:(14) Did you throw paper towels in the toilet? It will clog.I find the subordinated reading harder to access here than in (11), maybe not as crashingly bad as (13), but not as effortless as (11). A final data point is that it does seem possible to get modal subordination across clauses with the future directed present:(15) If Cinderella doesn’t leave before midnight, her carriage turns into a pumpkin. Do the footmen turn back into mice?So I am not sure modal subordination is a straightforward diagnostic of modality. It still could well be that the best account requires “will” to be a modal. To decide the issue, I suspect we will need some sustained attempt to develop a nonmodal alternative. (An alternative starting point: perhaps rather than reinterpreting the apparently subordinated claims, we simply add them to a derived context containing extra suppositions.)However this turns out, The Modal Future does extremely important work in articulating a significant and novel picture of our thought and talk about the future. Cariani covers an impressive amount of ground, proposing a range of interesting and novel views in a range of debates, and the discussion is consistently of very high quality. It is a must read for anyone working in these areas.
The article examines the issue of studying the practical stylistics of the Ukrainian language as an educational discipline in the training of media professionals, reveals the problem of improving the stylistic skills of students-journalists in the process of mastering the course as an important factor in professional training, substantiates the need to work on the stylistic skill of speech in the context of improving the skills of a journalist.It is marked that the practical stylistics of the Ukrainian language plays an important role in the training of future mass media workers as a means of forming a highly educated linguistic personality of a modern journalist.It is noted that the educational discipline "Practical stylistics of the Ukrainian language" has a significant communicative potential, and its mastering contributes to the fullest possible and perfect use of linguistic means by future journalists.The study of this educational component makes it possible to learn successfully the norms of the modern Ukrainian literary language, to develop the skills of creating and editing media texts of various genres and stylistics.It is emphasized that during the study of the educational component "Practical Stylistics of the Ukrainian Language" the students of higher education form competent, expressive and clear speech, acquire skills in stylistic text editing and the use of oral and written forms of all functional styles, observing orthographic, orthoepic, lexical-grammatical, punctuation norms, thanks to which communication skills are improved.It is concluded that the practical stylistics of the Ukrainian language has significant communicative opportunities, which contributes to the accurate, appropriate and balanced use of linguistic means in the practice of future journalists.
Il lavoro passa in rassegna gli studi sulle competenze scrittorie degli studenti universitari e illustra i risultati dell’analisi condotta sul corpus UniverS-Ita, che raccoglie testi argomentativi di universitari frequentanti, nell’anno accademico 2020-2021, il secondo anno di corsi di laurea triennali o a ciclo unico di area umanistica, scientifica. economico-sociale e sanitaria; più precisamente, sono stati esaminati 90 degli oltre 2000 testi che formano il corpus con lo scopo di rilevare le più frequenti deviazioni dalla norma in ambito ortografico, morfosintattico, lessicale e testuale.
 
 The written Italian of undergraduate students: first results of the Univers-Ita Corpus analysis
 The paper reviews studies on the writing skills of college students and illustrates the results of the analysis conducted on the UniverS-Ita corpus, which collects argumentative texts of college students who attended, during the 2020-2021 academic year, the second year of three-year or single-cycle degree programs in the humanities, sciences economic-social, and health; more specifically, 90 of the more than 2,000 texts that make up the corpus were examined with the aim of detecting the most frequent deviations from the norm in spelling, morphosyntactic, lexical, and textual areas.
between 1946 and 2022. The collected data were analysed using CiteSpace 5.8.R3 and VOSviewer 1.6.18. The results included tabulation, visualisation, and mapping for the past, present, and future directions of the field of psycholinguistics. We identified key authors, works, journals, and concepts in the existing evidence concerning (children's) language acquisition, production, comprehension, and dissolution. The study contributes to the systematic study of existing scholarship in the field of psycholinguistics by documenting the progress of the field and informing relevant researchers about the current state of the field of psycholinguistics. Having grouped the 32,586 documents in psycholinguistics, 12 clusters were identified. These include (1) examining individual difference in affective norm and familiarity account; (2) examining refractory effect in the role of Broca's area in sentence processing; (3) using eye movement to study bilingual language control and familiarity account; (4) exploring familiarity account through relative clauses; (5) the study of formulaic language and language persistence; (6) examining affective norm and sub-lexical effect in Spanish words; (7) examining lexical persistence in multiplex lexical networks; (8) the study of persistence through cortical dynamics; (9) the study of context effect in language learning and language processing; (10) the study of neurophysiological correlates in semantic context integration; (11) examining persistence as an acquisition norm through naming latencies; and (12) following a cross-linguistic perspective to study aphasic speakers.
The projections of the categories of linguistic consciousness and linguistic personality as prototypes of the power of language in general are sought in the work. The cognitive method is used to analyze the relationship between language consciousness and language personality, on the one hand, and norm and error as a clash of phenomena in the developmental process of language, on the other hand. The power of language is manifested and proved by linguistic media explication and at the same time “regulates” it through language laws and language norms. The media language refers to developmental processes in the vocabulary of the language. Lexicalization and grammaticalization can be traced and regulated in the direction of enriching the language and its future as a cognitive passport of national identity. The media discourse is a source of non-normative uses that should be prevented; it presupposes modern and up-to-date regulatory mechanisms in the direction of language protection and preservation - again as a cognitive passport of national identity and cultural sovereignty. The phenomenon for us is the collision of language - speech on the territory of human consciousness as an emanation of cognitive claim and communicative intention, more precisely in their section. Consequently, the problem is the extent to which the linguistic personality has a definite consciousness in terms of linguistic laws in order to present culture in its natural and a priori presentation.
From the point of view of studying the centuries-old history of the Turkish language, these language monuments created by Turkish poets and writers in the Middle Ages are important sources. The study of these monuments written in the Turkish language, and the study of their phonetic, lexical, and grammatical features also create conditions for determining the literary norms of the Turkic languages. From this point of view, the analysis of the vocabulary of “Jamshid and Khurshid”, a Turkish language written monument of the 14th-15th centuries, is both important and interesting from the point of view of studying the existence of Turkic words.In this article, the lexicon of Turkic origin has been studied in the language of Ahmadi’s masnavi “Jamshid and Khurshid”, the words of Turkic origin involved in the research have been compared with their usage forms in modern Turkic languages. As a result of the research, it has been found out that there are enough words of Turkic origin among the nouns, verbs, and numeral words used in the language of the monument. However, in the lexicon of “Jamshid and Khurshid” verbs occupy a greater place among the words of Turkic origin. In the lexicon of the 14th-15th century written monument “Jamshid and Khurshid”, carrying the linguistic features of Anatolian Oghuz Turkic, some of the words of Turkic origin have been preserved with minor phonetic changes, and some have been preserved their functionality as they are in modern Turkic languages.
To refine the word-foot theory, I have worked to incorporate statistical studies of related meters and recent developments in linguistics. The theory now provides explanations for how the meter arose, how it developed within Old Norse, Old English, Old Saxon, and Old High German, and how it evolved into the Middle English meter of poems like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.1 Here I return to the Old English (OE) period, this time with different emphases. Rather than showing how the theory explains observations in previous research, I present an updated theory on its own, with more attention to problems in alternative approaches. Rather than reviewing all available evidence for the theory, I focus on the clearest and most accessible evidence that shows why this kind of theory is required.The first task for a metrical theorist is to identify what Roman Jakobson called a metrical constant: something not required by ordinary grammar that holds true throughout a poem.2 The alliterative line consists of two verses, the first called the a-verse and the second called the b-verse. Eduard Sievers observed that most verses have four metrical positions if we assume that adjacent unstressed syllables share a single weak position called a Senkung, “dip.”3 This straightforward counting procedure would provide a metrical constant if it identified four positions in every verse, but it does not. To account for exceptions with three positions, rules have been proposed that “promote” an unstressed syllable to a stressed syllable at certain locations in the line.4 Identifying these locations has been a valuable contribution to research but does not explain the exceptions. From a strictly theoretical perspective, a rule of “promotion” is simply another way of saying that unstressed syllables are encountered where a four-position constant would require stress, something that happens about once every eight lines in Beowulf.5 Subrules permitting exceptions to more general rules can provide genuine explanations, of course, if they are supported by independent empirical evidence. A well-known example is Verner's Law, which permits well-defined exceptions to Grimm's Law. Verner's Law is accepted as a scientific principle because it is supported by discoveries about Indo-European stress placement, not because it categorizes exceptions to a useful rule of thumb.6 Adherents of Yakovlev's theory make no serious attempt to account for five-position verses, speculating that they survive from a lost earlier stage of the meter.7Sievers's system of scansion provided an invaluable account of the metrical facts. It has played a foundational role in English historical linguistics and in the editing and dating of verse texts.8 In all but a handful of difficult cases, the word-foot theory arrives from an entirely different direction at the constraints on verse form identified by Sievers, providing independent support for work based on those constraints. Sievers did not deduce his constraints from plausible hypotheses that apply to all verses, however. He did not provide a theory, strictly speaking.What all OE verse patterns have in common is that they can be filled by exactly two OE words. Verses are normally realized as phrases, and two-word phrases occur far more often in poetry than in prose.9 These facts can be explained by a hypothesis that the verse consists of two “word feet,” each foot having the pattern of an OE word. The word-foot hypothesis is simple, natural, and well supported by empirical evidence, but it challenges common assumptions about the nature of poetic form. Metrical scholarship has focused on forms that repeat a fixed pattern of syllables to create a linguistic rhythm within the line. The foot, as traditionally conceived, is a rhythmical unit. As Sievers observed, Old English meter does not employ feet of this kind.10The word-foot theory posits nine foot patterns that correspond to native word patterns, unstressed words and compounds included. Verses have a regular foot count but the permissible combinations of feet do not provide a regular linguistic rhythm. In excluding poetic rhythm from the system that defines acceptable verses, I do not mean to suggest that the topic has no theoretical significance. John Collins Pope has argued eloquently for the importance of poetic rhythm and I agree with much of what he says.11 My claim is that rhythm and meter employ two distinct rule systems, both very interesting indeed. A compelling performance of a poem, I would argue, requires alignment of metrical patterns, as represented in metrical theory, with rhythmical patterns, as represented in music theory. When a single foot pattern is iterated to create the verse or line pattern, as in iambic pentameter, alignment of the two systems is so straightforward that the metrical rules look like rhythmical rules. It is no trivial matter, though, to explain how Old English metrical patterns can be aligned with patterns that a music theorist would recognize as rhythmical.12 Further discussion of this topic would take us beyond the scope of the present article. A separate study is underway.13As Sievers sorted verses into Verstypen, “verse types,” he made every effort to arrive at the of He not the of course, for on a regular required for a the for A example of is In I a to the word foot in verse has a pattern, with a stressed syllable by an unstressed a syllable with stress for an unstressed syllable in or both The stress of and are but the on In the second foot is often filled by a stressed syllable by an unstressed A is a in are has no in the first foot and is to the has in the first foot and most often in the b-verse. of unstressed syllables is in and more in but in as for example in on he to which has four syllables more than The word-foot theory is not by the of verse but by the and of the which a native of Old English by The verse patterns are as distinct combinations of word feet and the is to explain why combinations are meter to a general for of with as and I the for meters that are for of are from of the in which the meter positions from metrical feet from from phrases, lines from for metrical are from for the linguistic Metrical are as rules that be certain at a in metrical the of a metrical the of a metrical the of a metrical principle of is from a patterns are identified if they correspond to linguistic patterns that native by and Metrical patterns are to identify if they correspond to linguistic feet work well in poetry because the word pattern of the is from a metrical a effort of be in a meter for of course, but the of a line be acceptable to the is the most principle of form. The of an is by from to provide for a theory of acceptable verses provide to the nature of poetic form. of a four-position constant make or no effort to explain these on that of no the of research on Old English A this has an rules for the verse can be by a system of rules that These rules the and of verses in to acceptable verses from acceptable rule and or more make a verse constraints on verse patterns are for a meter that foot In meters that repeat a single foot pattern, foot in locations and counting feet is a trivial can words with the foot in lines like we the first line of constraints on of foot but they are In the line the occur in the first two and the two feet are realized as in with the principle of In OE foot and in locations and take to the The of word feet with word for both feet and verses can have two in OE rules to foot patterns from verse patterns are required.The metrical are positions, which are from The position is from syllables with word The position is from syllables with word stress, which syllables and The position is from unstressed OE syllables are normally stress and the for the position is from the linguistic from the is on the most position of the verse, which is by This position be by a stressed syllable or by the of a stressed syllable by an unstressed is no in syllables with the positions from a stressed syllable normally with the unstressed syllable on an on is the unstressed syllable is and the would for syllables with stress provides for the nine foot patterns by OE with for the word The foot patterns are from to from to and from to more I employ these in is a foot pattern for every OE word pattern, for patterns that a verse, with of the in each foot A foot is normally realized as a word but is realized as a word at a in As we of word as feet is to The of a stressed syllable by an unstressed syllable is to a stressed as well as When for OE as like Here and I within is no independent evidence for the stress by Sievers in weak forms like The word-foot theory these as than as adjacent unstressed syllables to separate positions within the foot it to of four metrical positions the of a The OE word pattern is the pattern of words with a stressed syllable by an unstressed In with this word pattern is as the foot pattern, to the feet with no stress are feet with two are feet with metrical position are and feet with more than two metrical positions are a foot based on a common word pattern is more than a foot based on a more common word OE words normally have an syllable with stress by a syllable with The feet based on compounds are and common are compounds with a first an unstressed or The more feet are and is the foot pattern and words with this pattern are how on as word by as words by native are no OE compounds with the pattern and be no feet with this pattern to The metrical facts this foot can be with an foot to form an verse like the of an is the can a word of as for example in did his Here the foot is by a word and a word than by an with an the do is to an unstressed syllable the of the would be and but are no verses like This metrical be in a four-position system that adjacent unstressed syllables in weak and the The word-foot theory, on the each unstressed syllable a foot to its with two unstressed syllable share an position with a stressed syllable by and adjacent unstressed share the position by which is at a in to by in verses like at in for verses like on on the where the of syllables are with in and but not in his or A four-position constant provides no way to explain this In the word-foot theory, unstressed syllables the foot are from unstressed syllables the foot, which positions and rules of unstressed word or can be within a foot to an acceptable verse pattern, as for example in and or the more than unstressed to a foot a pattern that is common or a that would be to by than of a with its exceptions. The patterns of unstressed syllables are those in which the first foot is In these patterns, syllables the first verse by the foot from an In patterns, syllables verse and in the a verse form like iambic pentameter, which a fixed metrical pattern, to the pattern In metrical is by from the metrical pattern, called and metrical rules the of the line within acceptable In OE much is by the nine foot patterns into acceptable verse to verse patterns is more strictly than to the fixed pattern of iambic pentameter, and verse patterns that far from metrical are The verse pattern is the pattern with two which a of four metrical positions and a of two to the verse patterns with a single position are those with two positions and or more positions are and those with more than four metrical positions are constraints on verse form apply within of his or of the word-foot theory these constraints as rules that apply to all verses with the The of a rule in on the at which it a rule at the of the line than at the of the verse, which in than at the of the When two rules the rule and the rule is metrical is a rule of be if it with more than rule of in the rules apply at verse rule has a The on the that the rule or a and a of this kind make it to what of verses would count as evidence the identify of from is but not often be in separate of the acceptable verse patterns are provided in English lines are from in the in which the meter In this as in rules for stress and are from the word of a of a a and a word The its most stress on its first the The to the and its most stress on its first the The at the of the and normally in of phrases as in phrases of a or and a now but the in would as As and and more stress than of in is in the metrical from of the to the is as of the metrical of the to the a-verse metrical of the The most position in the line is the first position of the in is the first position of the b-verse. I to these as the In a verse with two positions, the second is than the the is to the a second position in the has than a second position in the position in the first foot is more than an position in the second is with linguistic In OE stressed syllables The of is related to metrical as most often on positions and is on the first and most position of the verse, normally by a or with are normally on positions where is or on an position in the first foot of the pattern or the pattern but on the more position in the second foot of the patterns and As we have observed the of on metrical as well as linguistic on positions and is on the first of the on positions in the first foot of and but is in the second foot of rule of the can be within a rule system that and to metrical have an by a more with two The is called the and the The more is called the It consists of a by the and a that the English requires within the linguistic Old English requires within the the of the is required to This is the first The as and count as however. with with and with for of word with a stressed can with and the not in The rules for are based on syllable in they are to rules for in the of the apply at the of the line and employ the for rules can be at a in with rules and are of the word-foot theory with and but the can be as the acceptable combinations of word feet by Sievers as I this as the of verse patterns with a second foot of are from from are if they are A patterns with two positions are to the and of the first foot, to the of the second The two patterns with a single by Sievers as are as and of are in OE meter to the foot and do occur in the Old which The for from the and the second foot is is as the of verse patterns that have a first foot or and a second foot with of the more patterns or patterns are to the of the first foot, to the of the second In the example for the foot is realized as a with an a The two-word example for from another poem, is as the of verse patterns in which the first foot is and the second foot has the pattern or the ordinary pattern patterns are to the of the first foot and to the of the second is as the of verse patterns in which the first foot has and the second foot is patterns are to the of the first foot, to the and of the second In and the second foot has the patterns as in In the the second foot has the patterns as in The very and very pattern once in The two-word from has a with the of pattern is the with a second as the with a first foot that is both and the as with no theoretical significance. of the word-foot theory apply to every verse with the of the and apply to but not all patterns within a by The patterns and for have and are distinct from the patterns and A word-foot rule in patterns does not apply to or rule acceptable verse patterns form a and the of the can be in a In with that the foot pattern to the can be by the foot pattern to form an acceptable verse are to the In the for verse patterns with of of of of and of and in the verse The each of these be to identify a of feet that the rule or foot patterns and are from the to constraints on a word the second foot from its the word it in which the word stress, as or than as or in the a word the second foot and its word the word is to metrical The verse to of a word to a stressed like the from which it is theorist a metrical rule be to that it does A rule verses with more than a syllables would no exceptions but would to verses from word of in way to the work by a metrical rule is to a kind of that is it is and the rules. of this called are identified with an I an in for verse the word-foot theory, two-word phrases that as verses are from those that do not and of two-word phrases is to in the As it a two-word verse can be by of an two-word by a in by with another word in the poem, or by an alternative word rules no exceptions would be very indeed. I employ from in most for with of in which both feet have more than two metrical The patterns are identified as in for acceptable verse patterns the words from in I provide the of the verse in which the word first the Old English period, the from word to well and available to Old English and word to metrical verses can often be by an alternative word by the of in it can into with which of on positions, or with which of the of the line. As in with a more than in verses of with feet of to and In verses, the normally the to do so if The of in is provided to the of each the in verses and in verses with a more foot or of would much The patterns in are the verses in I have the word that is most of the time but in the most verse compounds that are or in These poetic compounds provide and the poetic compounds are like of the a for In the first is The has the as the for of can often be by a word in an acceptable verse with a in the to a verse that would be verses with poetic compounds are because the stress in these compounds as in are by of a verse in or by of a verse that of the two feet that verses are from the metrical system by for compounds like an form of the are by two words and are difficult to from two-word the metrical system feet to they would be difficult to from two-word verses of has the for as a verse pattern has very for as a foot pattern because it is than the foot pattern and two syllables as The verse pattern and the foot pattern from the metrical to a metrical pattern if the alternative is to the words from Rather than OE as verses, to the constraints in rule more than three verses realized as compounds in an verse with the pattern a verse with the pattern realized as a a verse with the pattern and an verse with the pattern realized as a meter permits of a foot as a word with two word to the constraints in rule of a word as a foot rules the verse are of feet realized as word and the verse patterns by syllables are in the verses and the word as a foot is a These verses and in have a or on the and the of the position is by In cases, the verse pattern to a word as a foot in with which syllables with weak stress to an position as well as an syllables of this kind often as the of a OE the most in the can an The verse patterns and do not acceptable foot patterns, but they do of word as OE feet from verses very indeed. of as a foot pattern it to to a rule feet with more than three metrical as a foot pattern because words with this pattern have a to words with the pattern word patterns are employ first In Old Norse, of from the the word pattern and the foot no of with an foot, employ an verse pattern in of are we in with we as this verse alliterative on the position of the second foot and alliterative to the the foot pattern in two as the foot the of the and in the foot with The word is not a and be as a verse patterns by are by in and occur the first are from the feet that occur the first in and The unstressed are normally as syllables and the more as the of unstressed linguistic with an in syllable is by and to a stressed is as to or and like have and are to be from In be as unstressed as or as The because they a to a stressed and a to Old lost all of its unstressed but the and and at the of the line. In it in the a-verse and in the b-verse. is in the A and patterns that which are of and are normally realized as or with very and are realized as unstressed the most unstressed words. is useful in OE poetry because it for of words in required for unstressed lost in Old Norse, no and The are for in with a single in for the of in the the are in with which of The are for of and with in each that unstressed have as feet than unstressed they are more common in the unstressed have and are as with feet is acceptable in verse patterns of or A verse with a foot would be difficult to from a single foot with a of feet and verses that because is useful in Old English Old no for verses with feet in an like in can an in verse which as can an position by rule is in the patterns and the verse pattern does not correspond to an acceptable of an and a as The pattern does to a that be as Here as the feet from verses with The patterns are with verses in of verse patterns is now beyond two a word with three or more unstressed syllables provides an for a In verses with feet a word for this the with the pattern In with an on the provides an for the first of words and is in these because they no and verse not in but to in position as verses with more than two syllables positions, and to with the pattern are the verse has In the second stress has because it does not with an unstressed syllable in the word and with a syllable of These patterns are to the a-verse by the principle of The of it to the foot from an and this is in of by or more the eight with two syllables the first stress, the foot is realized as a as two or as a single word. the more word and these are of words for In for the word consists of a and an unstressed unstressed are as in or in the with As a no of that in at and in the Old lost no to two-word of and these do occur in Old English Old unstressed for feet in all the patterns that The for in the foot as an unstressed for that unstressed the first in more than those in an that to a the first in these the of are in and which Sievers a The word-foot theory provides a single for in all these the to feet from can be to more than of an OE most OE poems survive in It is all to that a theory of the meter to account for an that well be to A theory that accepted all verses as would patterns that are or to be of a four-position constant focus on of patterns and attention to patterns that are not verses is an a theory for When a is statistical can to verses from verses with but Sievers statistical evidence with to verses, but his can take us so Further requires an theory that explains why verses are and why the are as they The word-foot theory is in the of It is into theoretical linguistics and no assumptions about the of or The theory is in the its rules from an based on general that from a single metrical patterns are based on linguistic of the meter to of the in which general Metrical rules of the theory to the and of verses with a of The of these rules is to in the for the phrases of exactly two iambic as his verse it most of all in the of the earlier as he to meters and on the metrical the metrical foot as a of the that a meter is a of more and syllables based on the rhythm of ordinary This be the most in the of metrical which by and his to can be in of meter by and for as well as in work on OE meter by and a poetic iambic an of the foot plausible at first because the way to metrical in this form is to from its The of permissible foot of the metrical foot with that stress is by the of linguistic and the of from and a in certain of iambic As it these a of words. is far from all metrical theory, we and the of an that no metrical theory so far to has that the meter of a line is the metrical by the metrical of the words in verse forms a of foot patterns, the constraints on us to metrical and alliterative meters of this kind meters the second of the first In of of the foot as a word is than I the “word from an on alliterative word-foot meters do not require a fixed but rules are so that they are very difficult to and for poetic two-word verses are of in and of with a or a and a system of scansion metrical to linguistic In metrical are and to linguistic requires Here I have to a more of metrical from linguistic the word-foot theory, scansion is a straightforward of linguistic to linguistic by the most this way of that of linguistic can a metrical that is much interesting work to be not in Old English but in metrical
The article is devoted to the methodological features of teaching Uzbek as a foreign language in primary school. It describes the difficulties in working with productive types of speech activity, shows the main stages of formation of phonetic skills in students of primary school age. Simultaneously with the development of correct pronunciation skills and the assimilation of speech norms, lexical material corresponding to the given training level is introduced. The peculiarities of working with a dictionary at this stage require the correct selection of lexical units that pass from a passive dictionary to an active one.
This chapter provides an interesting and cohesive collection of articles documenting, the call ‘Standard Average European hosts Africa and Asia in the new millennium’. Urban varieties belong to all genders and age-groups in a variety of functions, “male youthspeak” is more restricted. Urban varieties are defined by their difference from the older standard and dialect forms of the languages, and are in the process of settling on their own norms, difficult as that may be in a brave new world of code-switching, rapid technological lexical expansion and the intrusions of European languages. The modern products, pastimes and concepts that prove increasingly attractive to young people come packaged in English; at best, speakers manage a hybridity between community language and colonial and/or European language. The opening up of a linguistic and stylistic continuum is well illustrated in Yazgül Simsek & Heike Wiese’s account of the new migrant forms of German.
The article discusses the origin of auxiliary words and their division into lexical-semantic groups based on the meanings belonging to these words. It also discusses the role of spelling principles in writing auxiliary words; thus, the article focuses on the spelling of auxiliary words. In this respect, it is mentioned about the difficulties in spelling certain auxiliary words, despite the established spelling norms. The author refers to the fundamental works of renowned Turkologists in the field of grammar, and supports his arguments with examples taken from modern dictionaries on orthography. Evolutionary changes in a number of auxiliary words are highlighted. The main purpose of the article is a comprehensive analysis of auxiliary words and syllables, identifying problems associated with the spelling of these linguistic units and providing ways to solve them. Therefore, when writing the article, the author provides References to the fundamental works of famous Turkic scholars published in the field of grammar on each statement, relies on dictionary materials and argues his opinion. By describing the historical background of auxiliary names as auxiliary words and determining their grammatical and lexical meanings, their function in the language has been described. An overview of the differences between conjunctions in Kazakh linguistics and Turkology has also been shown,
В статье предпринята попытка дать общую характеристику толкования норм, регламентирующих международное сотрудничество в сфере уголовного судопроизводства, вследствие чего показаны некоторые особенности уяснения подлинного смысла положений международного и внутригосударственного права. В ходе подготовки работы в основном были использованы лингвистические методы (компонентный анализ лексических значений и анализ переводческих трансформаций). Автором доказано, что в ходе взаимодействия государств в уголовно-процессуальной сфере прежде всего стоит опираться на комплексный подход, заключающийся в сочетании буквального и функционального принципов. Продемонстрировано, что акцессорным элементом в этой деятельности является использование подготовительных материалов к договорам о международном сотрудничестве в сфере уголовного процесса. The article attempts to give a general description of the interpretation of the norms governing international cooperation in the field of criminal justice, as a result of which some features of understanding the true meaning of the provisions of international and domestic law are shown. During the preparation of the work, linguistic methods were mainly used (component analysis of lexical meanings and analysis of translation transformations). The author proves that in the course of interaction between states in the criminal procedure sphere, first of all, it is worth relying on an integrated approach, which consists in a combination of literal and functional principles. It is demonstrated that an accessory element in this activity is the use of preparatory materials for agreements on international cooperation in the field of criminal procedure.
The present article is concerned with multilingual similarities of Europeanisms that have similar lexical and semantic structures in modern multilingual multi-genre European media-discourse. The cross-linguistic investigation of Europeanisms covers three European languages, namely German, English and Ukrainian. The purpose of this scientific research is to characterize the semantics, creation and functioning of Europeanisms-neologisms in modern multilingual, multi-genre media-discourse The Europeanisms will be understood here in terms of its geographic boundaries, European cultural heritage, European mental, social and material culture, their cultural foundation, the modern European self-awareness, the common norms and values of Europe, the European spirit as a worldview guide. First I take a short retrospective view on Ukrainian and European approaches to the problems discussed in this article. Europeanisms are sufficiently represented in the modern medical, economic, political, military, household, educational, digital media-discourse und cyber-discourse. It was found that the most active processes of word formation occur in the modern European media-discourse. Common methods of word formation of Europeanisms are affixation, compounding, contamination, and contraction. The negative ideological connotation of new eponymous pejoratives formed from the surnames of modern political leaders, and of new Europeanisms-exoethnonyms was revealed. The given European eponyms and exoethnonyms acquire an emotional and evaluative color with additional connotative meaning. By several similar examples of Europeanisms in diverse discourses it is qualified that English is the most important donor language for them. Despite the extremely unfavorable conditions of the pandemic and the (cyber)war, a number of original occasionalisms have become established in the European multilingual multi-genre media-discourse.
The training process of future journalists is of great importance in higher education institutions. The aim of it is to form creative, competent, innovation-oriented professionals who are good with words, able to express their thoughts and quickly adapt to a multicultural environment, and use knowledge, skills and abilities to succeed. This is due to modern requirements for the journalistic profession, society's demand for professional skills, improving the communicative and linguistic level of future professionals. The article examines the issue of studying stylistics of mass media as an academic discipline in the training process of media officers. It also reveals the problem of improving the stylistic skills of journalism students in the process of mastering the course as an important factor in their training. The necessity of work on stylistic dexterity of speech in the context of improving the professional skills of a journalist is substantiated as well. It points out the importance of stylistics of mass media in the modern teaching process of future media officers as a means of forming a highly educated language personality that a modern journalist should be like. It is concluded that the stylistics of the media has great communicative potential, which contributes to the communicatively appropriate use of language in the future journalistic profession. Additionally, the study of this educational component will contribute to the assimilation of future journalists of the norms of modern Ukrainian literary language, and the formation of skills to create and edit media texts of different genres and styles. During the study of the educational component "Stylistics of mass media" higher education students master the skills of literate, expressive, clear speech, acquire skills in stylistic editing, use of oral and written forms of all functional styles, following spelling, orthoepic, lexical and grammatical, punctuation, thus improving their communication skills.
International audience
The educational potential of the Dictionary of Rare Words from the Literary Works Covered by the School Curriculum developed in Saint Petersburg, Russia, is provided not only by the features of the wordlist and the nature of word semantization in a dictionary entry, but also by readily-available methodological support, including a system of assignments for dictionary entries and teacher guidelines. The system is based on a word-centric approach to the organization of educational work. It involves, firstly, commenting on specially selected passages of literary works of the school curriculum in accordance with the lexicographic description, and secondly, comprehensive analysis of lexical material contained in the dictionary, covering semantic, derivational, grammatical, and stylistic aspects. Among the priority areas of the proposed educational work are a comparative analysis of linguistic phenomena, the formation of skills for referring to authoritative sources of information about the language, primarily to dictionaries of various types, the development of a philological culture that involves awareness of the interaction between the usage and the norm, historical variability as a fundamental characteristic of the language, and specificity of aesthetically significant usage. A special attention is also given to the possibilities that the Dictionary offers in terms of carrying out student research and project activities or the organization of a public discussion of theoretically significant or practically relevant language issues. The tasks we offer provide the teacher with the opportunity to independently regulate the amount of student workload and can contribute to personalized learning. The article provides examples of tasks of various types and methodological comments to them addressed to the teacher.
Abstract This study explores variable Spanish subject pronoun expression (e.g., yo veo ~ veo ) in Spanish-English speaking children in different regions of the United States (U.S.): Los Angeles (LA), California, and the Tri-Cities area of the state of Washington. We also compare the U.S. children to monolingual Spanish-speaking children in Mexico. Binary logistic regression analyses of 2,064 verb tokens produced by nine U.S. children and nine children in Mexico, ages 5;11 to 7 years old, show that the children are sensitive to linguistic factors that typically influence children’s Spanish subject pronoun expression in their respective communities. In addition, we find that the LA children’s subject pronoun expression is predicted by lexical frequency. A subsequent analysis of the LA children’s frequent verbs uncovers two phrases with high degrees of prefabrication, yo creo and yo no sé, which, we argue, obscure the LA children’s sensitivity to Reference, all while acting as central exemplars of a [1sg+cognitive verb] construction.
The article is devoted to the evolutionary processes in the Italian language of the Internet, which are directly revealed at the lexical and word-formation levels. The article gives the general assessment of these processes from the point of view of a number of significant structural and sociolinguistic parameters in the context of the historical development of the Italian language. This research is based on the opposition of the language of the Internet to the structural norm of the Italian language; it is noted that the opposition is of slang nature. The key trend, as the author emphasizes, is the convergence of the oral and written forms of speech reflected in the used and normatively fixed forms of word-formation, in which traditional models as well as mixed polycodes (alphanumeric and/or alpha pictorial) are extensively used. Studying the media communication influence on the development of the Italian language, the author relies on the classification of the functional parameters of the opposition − convergence of written and oral forms of speech − by the Italian linguist G. Berruto. The main notions, which characterize such evolution, − diamesia, diastratia, diatopia, diafasia are studied. G. Berruto’s concept is developed by another Italian linguist G. Antonelli who singles out the language of the Internet communication as the culminating point of evolution. The article studies a large number of language examples revealing the picture of word-formation in the Italian language of the Internet. Word-formation is interpreted as the main factor in the normative evolution of the Italian language in the Internet communication. Particular attention is paid to contaminated word-formation methods, creolized forms of a language sign (contraction, pictogram), which are typical of the Internet language, as well as unregulated use of punctuation marks, and spelling violation. The article shows slang forms of lexical speech usage and word-formation in the Italian language of the Internet. The structural-linguistic and semiotic interpretation of the Italian Internet word-formation is given. The article carries out the rubrication of models and types of word-formation in the Italian language of the Internet. The article is suggested to specialists who are interested in semiotics of the Internet language, modern development trends of the Italian language, the peculiarities of Italian lexicology and word-formation.
Despite the recent popularity of contextual word embeddings, static word embeddings still dominate lexical semantic tasks, making their study of continued relevance. A widely adopted family of such static word embeddings is derived by explicitly factorising the Pointwise Mutual Information (PMI) weighting of the co-occurrence matrix. As unobserved co-occurrences lead PMI to negative infinity, a common workaround is to clip negative PMI at 0. However, it is unclear what information is lost by collapsing negative PMI values to 0. To answer this question, we isolate and study the effects of negative (and positive) PMI on the semantics and geometry of models adopting factorisation of different PMI matrices. Word and sentence-level evaluations show that only accounting for positive PMI in the factorisation strongly captures both semantics and syntax, whereas using only negative PMI captures little of semantics but a surprising amount of syntactic information. Results also reveal that incorporating negative PMI induces stronger rank invariance of vector norms and directions, as well as improved rare word representations.