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16504 papers
Advertisements play an important role in the tourism industry and are a crucial part of tourism discourse. The tourism text is not merely discourse to be transcoded, but it is embedded within a sociocultural background. The aim of this study is to expose how the 'nature' theme is used differently to promote tourism in different cultures. This paper examines and explores the discourse employed by English and Arabic tourist advertisements promoting Malaysia as a tourist destination. Based on domain or ideological categories, these advertisements try to convince potential customers to become travelers by meeting their cultural needs and motivations. Under the shadow of the comparative literature, the paper makes a comparison between the English and the Arabic advertisements focusing on convergences and divergences of cultural issues and motivations. Vocatively, the English and the Arabic tourist texts promoting Malaysia have been analyzed lexically, thematically, and the most important, culturally. Finally, tourist attractions are extremely ingrained in the norms and culture of a country.
Abstract Background Primary progressive aphasias (PPA) are a group of neurocognitive disorders caused by neurodegenerative diseases and defined by progressive deterioration of language capabilities. PPA are traditionally classified into three predominant variants: nonfluent‐agrammatic, semantic, and logopenic. Emerging studies suggest an individual’s spoken language impacts the clinical presentation of PPA variants, potentially leading to misdiagnosis in languages underrepresented in research. We aimed at phenotyping PPA in native speakers of Hebrew, a Semitic language, with unique characteristics such as: under‐representation of vowels in the orthography, which makes it easier to detect various types of dyslexia, rich inflectional and derivational morphology, making it easier to identify morphosyntactic impairments, and, together with object case, making word order more flexible, enabling the examination of various syntactic deficits (e.g. in syntactic‐movement). Methods Four native Hebrew speakers diagnosed with PPA (Mesulam 2001 criteria), aged 58‐68, complaint duration prior to assessment 10‐60 months, underwent assessment in Rabin Medical Center, Israel. Each participant underwent neurological evaluation, brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and multi‐domain cognitive testing. Regional brain atrophy on T1 weighted MRI was rated with validated visual atrophy scales. All participants subsequently underwent Hebrew language evaluation using Norm‐referenced tests, assessing syntax, lexical retrieval, reading (including words and nonwords sensitive to various dyslexia types), semantic and conceptual abilities tasks, and phonology. Results Participant’s presenting complaint was word finding difficulty (n = 3) and non‐fluent speech (n = 1). All participants exhibited deficits in the comprehension and production of syntactic movement including one participant with no other language deficits on formal testing and no brain atrophy. Three participants exhibited various dyslexias including morphological deficits,attentional dyslexia, vowel dyslexia, and surface dyslexia. As expected, poor scores on tests of lexical retrieval and syntax were observed in subjects with severe left anterior‐temporal and left fronto‐insular atrophy respectively. Conclusion To our knowledge, this is the first case series of PPA in native Hebrew speakers. Errors in syntactic movement and various dyslexia types were common in all subjects suggesting they may be useful in early‐stage diagnosis. Full results (language, cognitive and neuroimaging), including additional eight cases will be presented in the AAIC conference.
Background: An individual's diagnostic subtype may fail to predict the efficacy of a given type of treatment for anomia. Classification by conceptual-semantic impairment may be more informative. Aims: This study examined the effects of conceptual-semantic impairment and diagnostic subtype on anomia treatment effects in primary progressive aphasia (PPA) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Methods & Procedures: tests were used to measure conceptual-semantic processing. Based on norming that was conducted with unimpaired older adults, participants were classified as being impaired on both the picture and word versions (i.e., modality-general conceptual-semantic impairment), the picture version (Objects or Actions) only (i.e., visual-conceptual impairment), the word version (Nouns or Verbs) only (i.e., lexical-semantic impairment), or neither the picture nor the word version (i.e., no impairment). Following baseline testing, a lexical treatment and a semantic treatment were administered to all participants. The treatment stimuli consisted of nouns and verbs that were consistently named correctly at baseline (Prophylaxis items) and/or nouns and verbs that were consistently named incorrectly at baseline (Remediation items). Naming accuracy was measured at baseline, and it was measured at three, seven, eleven, fourteen, eighteen, and twenty-one months. Outcomes & Results: Compared to baseline naming performance, lexical and semantic treatments both improved naming accuracy for treated Remediation nouns and verbs. For Prophylaxis items, lexical treatment was effective for both nouns and verbs, and semantic treatment was effective for verbs, but the pattern of results was different for nouns -- the effect of semantic treatment was initially nonsignificant or marginally significant, but it was significant beginning at 11 Months, suggesting that the effects of prophylactic semantic treatment may become more apparent as the disorder progresses. Furthermore, the interaction between baseline Conceptual-Semantic Impairment and the Treatment Condition (Lexical vs. Semantic) was significant for verb Prophylaxis items at 3 and 18 Months, and it was significant for noun Prophylaxis items at 14 and 18 Months. Conclusions: The pattern of results suggested that individuals who have modality-general conceptual-semantic impairment at baseline are more likely to benefit from lexical treatment, while individuals who have unimpaired conceptual-semantic processing at baseline are more likely to benefit from semantic treatment as the disorder progresses. In contrast to conceptual-semantic impairment, diagnostic subtype did not typically predict the treatment effects.
Reading is a complex process involving multiple stages. An impairment in any of these stages may cause distinct types of reading deficits- distinct types of dyslexia. We describe the Malabi, a screener to identify deficits in various orthographic, lexical, and sublexical components of the reading process in French. The Malabi utilizes stimuli that are sensitive to different forms of dyslexia, including "attentional dyslexia", as it is traditionally refered to, characterized by letter-to-word binding impairments leading to letter migrations between words (e.g., "bar cat" misread as "bat car"), and "letter-position dyslexia", resulting in letter transpositions within words (e.g., "destiny" misread as "density"). After collecting reading error norms from 138 French middle-school students, we analyzed error types of 16 students with developmental dyslexia. We identified three selective cases of attentional dyslexia and one case of letter-position dyslexia. Further tests confirmed our diagnosis and demonstrate, for the first time, how these dyslexias are manifested in French. These results underscore the significance of recognizing and discussing the existence of multiple dyslexias, both in research contexts when selecting participants for dyslexia studies, and in practical settings where educators and practitioners work with students to develop personalized support. The test and supporting materials are available on Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/3pgzb/).
Detecting offensive language is a challenging task. Generalizing across different cultures and languages becomes even more challenging: besides lexical, syntactic and semantic differences, pragmatic aspects such as cultural norms and sensitivities, which are particularly relevant in this context, vary greatly. In this paper, we target Chinese offensive language detection and aim to investigate the impact of transfer learning using offensive language detection data from different cultural backgrounds, specifically Korean and English. We find that culture-specific biases in what is considered offensive negatively impact the transferability of language models (LMs) and that LMs trained on diverse cultural data are sensitive to different features in Chinese offensive language detection. In a few-shot learning scenario, however, our study shows promising prospects for non-English offensive language detection with limited resources. Our findings highlight the importance of cross-cultural transfer learning in improving offensive language detection and promoting inclusive digital spaces.
Pakistani English, recognized as a unique non-native, emerging, and indigenous variety of English, has evolved into an independent norm-dependent, and institutionalized language form. Diverging from Standard British English, it exhibits distinctive features in morphology, syntax, lexis, grammar, and phonology, shaped by socio-cultural, religious, and regional influences, contributing to its singular linguistic and cultural identity. Utilized across various domains, including education, commerce, and science and technology, Pakistani English plays a pivotal role within the Pakistani context. This comprehensive study sheds light on Pakistani English, encompassing its historical development, and conducting an in-depth exploration of its linguistic characteristics, namely lexical, morphological, syntactic, and phonological features. Additionally, it meticulously delineates the distinctions between Pakistani English and Standard British English. The research adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative analysis of linguistic data with ethnographic insights, providing a holistic understanding of Pakistani English's intricate interplay between language and culture. The study underscores the significance of these findings in advancing the fields of linguistic and cultural studies, offering valuable insights into the complex dynamics of language evolution and its profound impact on cultural identity and communication in the contemporary world.
Nigerian hip-hop artists utilize linguistic techniques to navigate cultural and societal boundaries. While past research on Nigerian hip-hop has delved into its use of English variations, portrayal of women, and the framing of identities and beliefs, there has been limited exploration of the language’s role in depicting internet fraud. This study adopts an applied linguistic lens and an interdisciplinary methodology to analyze the portrayal of internet fraud in tracks by six renowned Nigerian hip-hop artists: Okafor Golden Chinedu (X Busta), Mikel Mint (Jupitar), Patrick Nnaemeka Okorie (Patoranking), Babatunde Olusegun Adewale (Modenine), Abolore Adegbola Akande (9ice), and Olumide Edwards Adegbulu (Olu Maintain). Drawing from the principles of Moral Disengagement and Lexical Semantics, the research elucidates how these artists linguistically navigate societal norms when addressing theme of internet fraud.
The research examines the binary opposition of “good” and “evil” in the English and French languages within the context of foreign language teaching. The aim is to analyze these concepts’ lexical-semantic and cultural aspects and explore their implications for foreign language learners. The study adopts a comparative approach, considering the similarities and differences in representing “good” and “evil” in the two distantly related languages. The analysis focuses on the semantic structure and distribution of lexical units associated with these concepts and the cultural connotations embedded in their usage. The research focuses on how the binary opposition of “good” and “evil” impacts language learners’ understanding of the target culture and their ability to communicate effectively in the foreign language. The latter gain a deeper appreciation of the target culture’s moral values and social dynamics by examining the cultural meanings and connotations associated with these oppositions. The findings highlight the asymmetry of lexical units within the lexical-semantic groups of “good” and “evil”, revealing discrepancies in the number and distribution of words and their meanings. Antonymy and enantiosemy are identified as regularities in forming vocabulary, denoting good and evil in the compared languages. These linguistic tools enable learners to express contrasting concepts and enhance their linguistic and intercultural awareness. Incorporating the binary opposition of “good” and “evil” in foreign language teaching can promote a deeper understanding of the target culture’s values, norms, and worldview. Learners become more sensitive to cultural aspects and better equipped to navigate intercultural interactions by unravelling the underlying cultural codes embedded in language.
The article reveals the general requirements for the qualification papers of future Mathematics teachers in the context of observing linguistic and stylistic norms of the scientific style, forming the language culture of a modern teacher. The social and communicative importance of the influence on the development of the teachers’ mathematical and scientific language has been analyzed. The peculiarities of the scientific language and the main flaws of its written presentation – the scientific style text – in the qualification papers of Mathematics teachers, who obtain the second educational level, have been revealed. Considerable attention has been paid to the formation of mathematical texts, in particular to issues of modern mathematical terminology. Typical linguistic and stylistic mistakes of authors, which they make when writing, editing and translating mathematical texts, have been analyzed. These mistakes to the specifics of scientific technical terminology, lexical and stylistic features of the style of scientific language have been related. Examples of the most frequently used lexical constructions and stable inflections in mathematical texts have been given. Recommendations on avoiding mistakes when constructing a text in a scientific style have been given. Selecting appropriate Ukrainian equivalents of commonly used lexemes of the Russian language, using established word combinations, and observing the grammatical norms of the literary language have been provided.
The article is dedicated to the analysis of lexical and grammatical transformations in the process of translating international legal documents from English into Ukrainian. The linguistic aspect is of great importance in ensuring accuracy and compliance in conveying legal norms and obligations. The article examines lexical and grammatical transformations from the classification of L. Naumenko and A. Hordeyeva, which translators apply to adapt the text to the Ukrainian audience and take into account the linguistic and cultural specifics. The article analyzes various types of translational transformations and their role in the translation process, considering the perspectives of renowned scholars who have made significant contributions to the understanding of this concept, such as L. S. Barkhudarov, I. Korunets, I. Sinyahovska, I. Melchuk, J.-P. Vinay, J. Darbelnet, I. Zorenko, L. Naumenko, A. Gordieieva, Ya. I. Retsker, V. Karaban, I. Klymenko, T. Levytska, A. V. Fedorov, A. D. Schweitzer, I. Orlova, M. Shemuda, and O. O. Selivanova. The research emphasizes the importance of analyzing lexical and grammatical transformations in ensuring the accuracy and adequacy of the translation of international legal documents such as the European Convention on Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and highlights the diversity of approaches to their classification and application in translation. The article provides examples of specific transformations used by translators to preserve legal accuracy and maximize consideration of linguistic specificity in the translation of such documents, and it analyzes the most commonly used translation transformations in international documents that ensure their precision and clarity.
PURPOSE: This study examines the development of narrative microstructure elements of productivity, lexical diversity, and syntactic complexity in the oral story production of preschool- and school-age Kuwaiti Arabic-speaking children. It also explores the effects of story task complexity on the target microstructural features. METHOD: This study employed a cross-sectional research design and enrolled 96 monolingual speakers of Kuwaiti Arabic. Four groups of children aged 4;0-7;11 (years;months) were randomly recruited from public schools across Kuwait. The groups consisted of 22 four-year-olds (Kindergarten 1), 24 five-year-olds (Kindergarten 2), 25 six-year-olds (Grade 1), and 25 seven-year-olds (Grade 2). Two sets of sequential pictures from the Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument were used to elicit storytelling from all participants: a one-episode story and a more complex three-episode story. RESULTS: The children's stories were analyzed to determine if there were differences in narrative microstructure as a function of age and task complexity. The data indicated that productivity, lexical diversity, and syntactic structures increased with task complexity. The length of communication units, the average mean length of the three longest utterances, and the amount and variety of words in the children's productions were all significantly larger in the more complex story. Only one syntactic structure showed age as well as task effects. CONCLUSION: Clinical recommendations include adapting the coding scheme to fit Arabic data, using the more complex narrative alone for microstructure analysis, and calculating only a few measures for productivity and syntactic complexity to save time.
The article is devoted to the study of the peculiarities of the application of court precedent in the civil process of Ukraine. The general theoretical concept of judicial precedent is considered on the basis of legal doctrines of domestic and foreign scientists. The author's interpretation of this lexical term and its main features is formed. The article contains an analysis of the definition of judicial precedent in the norms of legislation - the Civil Procedure Code of Ukraine. The importance of amending the legislation by supplementing the norm of Article 13 of the Law of Ukraine "On the Judicial System and the Status of Judges", Article 10 of the Civil Procedure Code of Ukraine, in which judicial precedent will be understood as a source of law, is emphasized. The authors of the article analyzed the use of court precedents in disputed court cases, cassation appeals. It has been studied that the positions indicated and published in the legal acts of the highest instance court in Ukraine—the Supreme Court—can be applied by the courts of the first and appellate instances. It was noted that it is important to adopt a separate article of the Civil Code of Ukraine, on the basis of which an algorithm will be developed for the Supreme Court to cancel the decisions of the courts of first instance and appeal due to the lack of previous practice of the Supreme Court in similar legal relations. Special emphasis was given to the analysis of the Supreme Court Decision in case № 711/17/19, which contains the arguments of the Supreme Court regarding the practical aspects of the annulment of the decisions of the lower court levels due to the lack of analysis and references to similar court cases formed earlier.
Imagine a classroom discussion of Lawrence v. Texas, the U.S. Supreme Court's landmark decision holding sodomy laws unconstitutional.1 One student argues that the Court's ruling was correct because a state may not base its criminal laws on bare moral disapproval. Another student picks up on Justice Scalia's dissenting opinion and responds that, if that principle were sound, polygamy and bestiality would also be immune from punishment.2 A third student chimes in to observe that those comparisons are offensive, even harmful, and urges or intimates that the second should apologize. What should happen next? One natural thought is that it depends on whether the offense that the third student took (or supposed others would take) is justified. That is evidently what Justice Scalia himself thought: faced with an openly gay student's similar request for an apology, Scalia rebuked the questioner for failing to grasp the reductio argument that he had actually made.3 Insofar as Scalia had “compared” same-sex intercourse and bestiality, after all, he claimed only that bans on these practices are alike by the lights of the principle that the Court invoked to invalidate sodomy laws. As Scalia correctly observed, that claim really has nothing to do with whether same-sex intercourse is morally tantamount to bestiality at all. Yet I suspect many will share my instinct that this point of logic is not all that matters, from a moral point of view, in the kind of encounter that I have described. For if many people confronted with Scalia's analogical argument will foreseeably take its expression as implying a moral equivalence between same-sex intercourse and bestiality—or, more simply, as an anti-gay insult—that fact alone seems to bear on whether, or at least how, one should voice the argument. And insofar as Scalia or the second student in our imagined dialogue predictably caused gay audience members to think they were being insulted (even, in a sense, mistakenly), and did so without good reason, taking offense at that behavior—under that revised description—could well be warranted after all. In a sense, the listener's interpretation, which starts off foreseeable but mistaken, seems to bounce off of the speaker and return to the listener vindicated in the end.4 This line of thought might suggest that the second student did act wrongly and should indeed apologize. But that is not a comfortable result either. Treating the student's mere invocation of the analogical argument as an insult will tend to ratify the misunderstanding of what they actually said, to discourage the expression of other ideas that could also be misunderstood, and to raise the overall “symbolic temperature” within the community.5 Indeed, a general practice of validating reactions such as the third student's here could well result in gay students facing more, rather than fewer, comments that they rightly take as offensive—at least in a belief- or evidence-relative sense of rightness—and thus leave them only worse off. So, again, what should the characters in this story do? I am tempted to say that, if you think the answer is obvious, one of us is missing something important. Of course, my real topic is not this vignette, but the formidable genre of moral and political disputes of which it is a characteristic if stylized example.6 Roughly speaking, that genre involves claims (1) in the normative register of respect and offense that are (2) linked to membership in a presently or historically subordinated social group and (3) occasioned by symbolic or expressive items or acts (flags, monuments, mascots, pronouns, analogies, tweets, “tropes,” and the like). Any descriptive account of our public discourse respecting matters of social equality today would have to give these claims a prominent place. In part because they are now so politicized, however, they can be exceptionally difficult to parse and evaluate on their own terms. In fact, it can be difficult to say anything at all about them without seeming to enlist on one or another side of a sharp conflict whose battle lines are already set.7 And yet I do not see how we could make sense of this important domain, or navigate conscientiously within it, without engaging both sympathetically and critically with efforts to recognize and redress claims of identity-related offense or dignitary harm. The premise of this essay is that we might find it easier to do that if we reframe the problems of identity-related offense in a somewhat broader perspective. Viewed abstractly, these cases pose a more general set of issues relating to the formulation, operation, and enforcement of conventions for communicating attitudes of respect and disrespect for other people. As several philosophers have recognized, such conventions form the substance of codes of etiquette, manners, or politeness; in social life writ large, we negotiate them constantly and rely upon them to meet a variety of essentially communicative obligations to one another. What is at work in encounters such as the classroom discussion that I just sketched, I will suggest here, is a communicative apparatus of the same fundamental kind—an “etiquette of equality” that specifies what the public expression of certain broadly egalitarian attitudes, in particular, shall be taken to require and forbid. Understanding the problem in those terms clarifies the valuable functions that the norms at issue may serve and makes it easy to see why, even though these norms may be quite arbitrary in content, they have real moral weight.8 At the same time, this account casts in sharp relief the costs to which the same normative system can give rise, including by the lights of what seem its worthiest aims. By demanding ever-greater investments in the communicative dimensions of respect, the etiquette of equality threatens to divert us from, or even impede, the ambition of constructing a social order in which all are actually treated as equals. With these ends in view, I begin in Sections II and III by sketching the moral functions of conventions of etiquette or politeness in general and of the etiquette of equality in particular. In Sections IV through VI, I then proceed to unpack three problematic, interconnected features of this distinctive etiquette regime: (1) the costly and potentially self-defeating overdetermination of relevant signals; (2) a recursive tendency toward inflation in respect's demands; and (3) a related set of incentives for testing, and then affirming, a group's status through the assertion and remediation of offense. Taken together, I suggest, these add up to a powerful indictment of the etiquette of equality as practiced today—but one fully consistent with recognizing the value of its aspirations and even the genuine normative force of its demands. I then conclude in Section VII by reflecting on the dilemma with which this indictment leaves us. In short, there may often be a powerful moral case for each of us as individuals to act in ways that our community's operative respect norms demand, even if we believe both that the norms themselves are in need of reform and that our collective observance of them harmfully fuels and entrenches them. The reason is that, for the most part, our individual choices simply have too little effect on what the norms will be in the future to outweigh the immediate effects that those same choices have in light of what the norms already are. I doubt that this predicament has any fully satisfactory solution. But I think it counsels an ambivalence about the etiquette of equality that neither its enthusiasts nor its critics have tended to cultivate or express, and I think there is some reason to hope that expressing and thereby normalizing such ambivalence might itself go some way toward reconciling our conflicting obligations in this domain. Let me start with a claim that I hope will be uncontroversial: people have an important interest in others' recognition of their status as equal members of the communities that structure their lives. The full satisfaction of this interest, moreover, requires not only that others in fact hold certain attitudes, but that a person be made aware of others' regard as well.9 That second, public or communicative dimension of the interest in recognition will prove especially important here, so we should pause at the outset to take stock of its grounds and weight. Two principal bases for the value of knowing of others' respect suggest themselves. First, the epistemic pillars of a person's self-respect could well erode without reason to believe that others consider them respect-worthy as well.10 Second, and in any event, the assurance of others' respect is often essential if a person is to enjoy genuine opportunities to share in the benefits of social cooperation. The litany of indignities and anxieties recounted in Martin Luther King, Jr.'s “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” makes both of these points vivid. Black people in the Jim Crow South, King explained, were “forever fighting a degenerating sense of ‘nobodiness’” engendered by others' withholding of the usual signs of respect.11 Meanwhile, the same lack of assurance about their standing in the eyes of others consigned them to “living constantly at tiptoe stance, never quite knowing what to expect next,” be it a denial of a needed service, a public humiliation, or outright violence.12 The conditions that King described were extreme, of course, but the underlying concerns here apply more generally. If a community is to support its members' self-respect and warrant them in incurring the vulnerabilities inherent in social intercourse, it will have to make mutual respect a salient element of the publicly recognized common ground.13 But how can that collective, communicative obligation be discharged? Ideally, we would want some coordinated social practice that makes the signaling of mutual regard routine, manageable, and predictable. Such a practice should afford ample occasions for communicating the relevant assurances about our own attitudes—so that, in Jeremy Waldron's phrase, each of us is “visibly impressed by signs of one another's commitment” to respecting our dignity.14 But at the same time, a suitable practice should allow us to express these attitudes en passant, without constantly derailing the purposive activities that bring us into contact with one another in the first place. What we would want, in other words, is a “recognized social currency that symbolically operates as thoughtfulness but simultaneously alleviates its strains.”15 As several philosophers have observed, “etiquette,” in the sense of conventional rules of politeness or courtesy, is the social practice that best answers to this description.16 I hasten to add that not everything that goes by that name is squarely relevant here.17 But many etiquette norms (and by many estimations, the most important ones) are concerned precisely with the routinized expression of attitudes toward other people. We have norms about the appropriate manner and occasions for expressing gratitude and deference, about what to say in case of an interruption or collision, about how to issue commands and make requests, about greetings, even about where we direct our gaze—and, of course, about much more besides.18 As Sarah Buss observes, the combined effect of all of these norms is to ensure that there are “many occasions on which there is something rather particular people must be sure to do in order to be polite to one another.”19 And in placing these demands on us, the norms thus give us many opportunities for, “in effect, saying ‘I respect you,’ ‘I acknowledge your dignity,’”20 through the simple act of complying. As long as certain behaviors are generally understood as appropriate when it comes to persons owed respect, after all, we can express respect for someone simply by visibly including them within the class of beings to whom we evidently take those standard-issue obligations to run. We are thus relieved of the practical burdens and game-theoretic conjectures that successfully communicating appropriate attitudes to a host of other people, each perhaps with their own beliefs about how respectful people tend to behave, could otherwise demand of us. At the same time, threading these practices through our interactions can serve to inculcate the very attitudes that we are being enjoined to express, as well as the more general sensitivity to the perceptions and interests of others that underwrites the injunction to publicly express them.21 The price of enjoying these opportunities for signaling respect through politeness, of course, is that we will also signal something when we fail to use them. In particular, omitting some standard respect-communicating performance, and especially seeming to do so purposely, will naturally bear the opposite meaning—not because the forgone behavior is beneficial in itself, but because of the valued message that is being withheld, and thereby inverted. This is why refusing to address Black people with standard honorifics, such as “the respected title ‘Mrs.,’” was one of the routinized forms of insult that King described.22 Or for a more pedestrian example, consider someone who wears bright, colorful clothes to a typical American funeral.23 Why is that disrespectful of the bereaved family? The core of the answer is simply that a prevailing convention makes wearing dark clothes at a funeral a means of expressing sadness or showing respect for those mourning the death. That convention allows people to express fitting attitudes, and in so doing, it inevitably creates opportunities (if one can call them that) for communicating opposite signals, through nonconformity, as well.24 We can now turn squarely to the thesis that ordinary etiquette, understood along the lines that I have just sketched, offers a valuable paradigm for understanding the problems of identity-related offense with which I began. The gist of that comparison will now be clear: in both contexts, we are concerned with the attitudes toward others that a person's behavior shows by the lights of some set of semiotic conventions, and with the moral implications that those meanings then have in light of (among other things) the interest in one another's recognition that I highlighted a moment ago. But in order to build out a more nuanced account of how the conventions of interest here function, it will help to start by considering the paradigm case of slur words specifically. If there is a distinctive etiquette of equality, after all, using a slur for a subordinated group would seem the quintessential violation of it—much as employing certain vulgarities would represent a paradigmatic violation of etiquette generally. And because I find Geoff Nunberg's recent account of the pragmatics of slurs particularly illuminating, I will use it to cast light on a wider class of identity-related affronts that appear to work in a similar way.25 Nunberg's view, in short, is that there is no difference in semantic content between slur words and their neutral counterparts (e.g., between “redskin” and “Indian”)—just as there is no such difference between “ain't” and “isn't,” or between “pulchritude” and “beauty.”26 Rather, the important differences within each of these pairs lie in the sorts of features that a dictionary would mark with labels alongside a definition: tags such as offensive, formal, slang, archaic, and the like. These bits of “lexical metadata” capture sociolinguistic facts—facts about who uses the words at issue, or the discourses to which they belong, not about what the words themselves mean.27 The special effect of any given person's using a slur is then achieved through a kind of “‘affiliatory’ speech act”: the speaker signals or declares, through their use of one term rather than another, membership in or solidarity with the community whose word of choice it already is.28 Thus, as Nunberg sums up his view, “racists don't use slurs because they're derogative; slurs are derogative because they're the words that racists use.”29 This analysis directly and convincingly explains the mechanism of offense in one familiar class of cases. Suppose, for instance, that I describe Obergefell v. Hodges to students as the case in which the Supreme Court recognized a right to of them would be by that even though their would have taken the same as essentially a neutral not long ago. Why is the words and may be but was the word within a particular and my choice to from the word in my community in of that would signal a to or with the prevailing attitudes of that rather than those of my toward the at In other words, my word choice would what Nunberg a would thus take offense at my word choice because they would take it as a or that I gay people with the And their might well warrant that on their part, even though the same from the same at some would have This is a good but the to the etiquette of equality is recognizing that we can the same fundamental analysis well matters of word as an dictionary might now with or offensive, I want to suggest, we all with a kind of that similar not only to words, but to other items as the reductio argument for the of sodomy laws with which I began. If same-sex intercourse to the very sense of that the are alike by the lights of some offensive, it seems to be so in much the same way that using the word now At least in the of that the speech act of this is itself an in the relevant sociolinguistic in effect, it is as If slurs are the words that racists we might then comparisons are the comparisons that In fact, some and now or that make this quite to the content they are to These can be understood as etiquette more in than in from those by Martin or simultaneously describe and the with particular with a to the of respectful attitudes and the of offense within a particular domain. What and the etiquette of equality, at least as I the is thus the set of attitudes whose expression it the particular that it just how to or the attitudes that this is not obvious, and the of the “etiquette of equality” will not be without such an my choice to as the a certain point of and would be natural of the relevant of attitudes, for example, that these lack the general of the relevant are to make the a and I will take the as a First, there are derogative attitudes and with particular subordinated social and the etiquette of equality specifies how to expressing or those attitudes or Second, much as not only can offense but also can the etiquette of equality specifies how to signal of the same disrespectful of the conditions with which they are makes sense that we would have a set of conventions to these a of and it would be to rely on the etiquette of and alone to meet the communicative obligations in Section people have particular for about their more of respect will be needed to the same of So, for example, norms that particular terms as respectful valuable occasions for respect for members of the for so when their group membership is some of expression is already often linked to an moreover, norms that this can discourage the relevant behavior and members of subordinated of some of the that they otherwise when it And both of these a with the functions of etiquette writ by etiquette such norms are also to as of efforts to our thought and in other The reason for might be that simple us to for instance, but one effect of efforts to our practices has to the use of on account of its sociolinguistic This of the etiquette of equality casts it, etiquette in a broadly A system for respect for members of subordinated and signaling seems a natural to a social in which such respect be taken for And we the issue that it seems that those who at norms on the that they are or that there is nothing disrespectful about to “the or where a person of is from, and so often just missing the is nothing about wearing to a funeral but you do If an etiquette to communicating respect for members of subordinated a of etiquette in it be simply for as other codes of etiquette if one the value of these moreover, that is no more a moral for without regard for and of in this than in any And yet it seems that the of this etiquette and the to it are also our practices for communicating respect, and the broader communicative we in ways that can be at that costs alongside their costs are to be if those of us in ways in these lack a sense of what is the of the and the variety of I any to But the three I will turn to three such that seem particularly important and to out some of the characteristic of of our ordinary etiquette as the of saying and for their and very these conventions are so if they lack what Nunberg a a social group whose recognizing a common in a for some or on a convention that they are then taken to That is part of the reason that the observance of these norms generally anything the bare respect that Buss as the special of act as our most familiar politeness conventions is to at one of “the The etiquette of equality is in this state the obvious, the people most in their expression with special of the standing of members of subordinated are not an of And the and norms on which they are thus inevitably by that and political Indeed, this seems to how those practices serve their communicative as slurs by the conventions of many of the practices seem to respect in a by the conventions prevailing who have these with their own attitudes toward the at If “the of is by the interests and of the communities that and own as Nunberg then we should expect the same to be of what we might call or word such as the that serve to give those with egalitarian their own distinctive for about the same of politeness, use of these etiquette conventions a social membership perhaps But in light of the and of the social that this domain, it seems that people will often have of just who the of what attitudes those people or of which of their attitudes are to any given one of as to to the of a person's choice to As a people will also have of the with which the relevant speech act a own Indeed, even one recognizing that all of the just matters of will take such an act of to of The of all this is that the of the relevant in the sense of the attitudes a person is taken to express by it, will often be By way of consider wearing a in the symbolic act whose is I in much the same At one wearing the is naturally taken simply to express or to the That is the of that most the semantic content of a of the behavior by the operative own Yet it is a social fact that those who use that particular to express that content today tend also to hold a particular, of what demands. For me to the could thus about my on any of I the of in that I of the who have taken to the and so who that I moreover, may take my choice not only as of these other but as an on my part to signal them. So, if I do not want to or these that me a reason for the if I a of and would all to express it in this that reason wearing the has force even if rightly not actually any of these even if my audience not think that it and even if many who by that to express as such and nothing most this reason for the its force even if my so might itself to light of their own of the relevant a lack of on my In that event, I will find in an expressive and I will simply have to the in the at of the ways of being of the practices by the etiquette of equality are to their salient but in the same they may be and out by some as and signals of ways of the equal standing of members of subordinated of
В статье представлен опыт составления «Словаря топонимов Республики Саха (Якутия): населенные пункты» на русском языке, включающего 562 словарные статьи. Актуальность работы обусловлена активизацией топонимических исследований в регионе и возникшей необходимостью фиксации его топонимической системы в данный исторический период. Новизна определяется охватом топонимического материала, глубиной его анализа, а также широтой лингвистических и экстралингвистических проблем, решаемых в процессе сбора языкового материала и составления статей словаря. Анализируются требования к составлению топонимических словарей, выявляются трудности составления словарных статей и предлагаются пути их решения. Подготовка материалов для словаря была сопряжена с рядом проблем, которые в ходе исследования были решены: предложено фиксировать повторяющиеся наименования населенных пунктов в одной словарной статье с указанием месторасположения каждого; в качестве заголовочного слова выбрано официальное современное русскоязычное наименование, к которому в скобках прилагается якутское название, их орфографическое и графическое оформление (особенно при наличии вариантов) определено в соответствии с требованием нормализации наименований географических объектов Федерального закона РФ; в качестве справочного материала в словарные статьи включены все имеющиеся на данный момент сведения о происхождении ойконима, языке-источнике, а также информация этнографического характера; для обозначения местонахождения приводится административно-территориальная характеристика географического объекта. Для дальнейшей работы определяются перспективы сбора и анализа материала над дополненным и исправленным изданием словаря, дается обоснование необходимости фиксации в словаре акцентологических норм, а также включения в новый словарь сведений о других территориально-муниципальных наименованиях: наслегах, сельских поселениях, районах и улусах Республики Саха (Якутия). The article describes the experience of compiling the dictionary of toponyms of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia): Settlements, which contains 562 lexical entries. The relevance of the work arises from the activation of toponymic research in the region and the need to document its toponymic system in this historical period. The scope of the toponymic material determines the novelty of the work, the depth of the analysis, and the extent of the linguistic and extra-linguistic problems solved in the collection of the linguistic material and the compilation of the lexical entries. The requirements for the preparation of toponymic dictionaries are analyzed, the difficulties in compiling lexical entries are pointed out, and possible solutions are suggested. In preparing the materials for the dictionary, there were a number of problems that were solved in the course of the study: it was proposed to combine the repeated names of settlements into one lexical entry indicating the location of each settlement; the official modern Russian language name is chosen as the introductory word and is connected in parentheses with the Yakut name, with the spelling and graphic design (especially if there are options) determined in accordance with the requirement of unification of names of geographical features from the federal law of the Russian Federation; the lexical entries contain all currently available information on the origin of the oikonym, the source language and ethnographic information as reference material; an administrative-territorial characteristic of the geographical feature is given to indicate the location. Perspectives are given for collecting and analyzing the material for further work on the revised and corrected edition of the dictionary; reasons are given for the need to document accent norms in the dictionary, as well as for the inclusion of information on other territorial and communal names in the new dictionary: territories, rural settlements, regions and districts, and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).
Abstract Variationist studies have shown the implication of tie properties in the emergence and preservation of linguistic norms. This contribution deepens the understanding of this mechanism at the dyadic level. It explores relational subjectivity and relativity among individuals of a community and their implications in the distribution of lexical variants. The aim is to understand how the reciprocity of a relation influences the share of lexical practices. To do so, we analyze the network of discussions of bachelor's degree students of the University of Geneva and their lexical practices. Using the modern methods used in social network analysis to study relational properties and by running multiple regression quadratic assignment procedure (MRQAP), reciprocal interactions are found to lead to a higher lexical share and similarity.
Introduction. Today, in the modern Ukrainian literary language, colloquial speech is a source of active use of words, forms and syntactic constructions. This is accompanied by the destruction of standard schemes that organize the structure of the sentence. As a result, new, not similar to traditional, actualized types of expression, built on the phenomena of syntactic redistribution, separation of some components, etc., appear. Thanks to the dismemberment of a typical sentence, variations of different lexical-semantic nuances of meanings that arise as a result of figurative and aesthetic concretization and individualization of content sections become possible. It has been observed that one of the urgent problems of modern linguistic research is the specificity of functioning in the artistic text of incomplete sentences, which are traditionally interpreted as deviations from the norm with one or more members missing, which can be implied from the context or speech situation. The study of sentence syntax is extremely relevant, as it helps to learn the forms of organization of extended constructions, features of the structure of statements and the text. It was found that the structural incompleteness of the sentences is stylistically motivated. The greater semantic and stylistic load of other elements of this sentence and the general expression of the syntactic structure compensates the special omission of any element in the composition of the sentence. Therefore, introducing an incomplete sentence into the text, the author focuses attention on the semantic and stylistic direction of the sentence or its individual places. It is proved that incomplete sentences are a peculiar phenomenon of the modern Ukrainian language with stable functional and stylistic parameters. They are one of the most characteristic features of colloquial speech and are often used by writers precisely for the purpose of stylization, among which is the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo, a master of the Ukrainian word among Ukrainian writers of the 1960s, a poet, novelist and publicist. The original and genre-stylistic diverse work of the Ukrainian writer Yevhen Hutsalo has been of interest to researchers of different generations for more than one decade. The artist's creativity is quite difficult to perceive if the reader is not able to read between the lines the real idea skillfully hidden under ordinary words. Yevhen Hutsalo’s linguistic skill is in creating new and using already known linguistic means in semantic and grammatical directions uncharacteristic for them. It was found that expressive constructions expressed by incomplete sentences require special attention. Purpose. The purpose of the research is to determine the features of the incomplete sentence as a means of expressive syntax, to find out the varieties and specificity, the frequency of their functioning in the prose language for children by Yevhen Hutsalo. Working with the article, we outlined the following tasks: to investigate the semantic and syntactic organization of an incomplete sentence; to analyze the structural and semantic features of an incomplete sentence based on the material of Yevhen Hutsalo’s works for children; to determine the frequency of use of incomplete sentences in Yevhen Hutsalo's prose works for children compared to complete structures using the example of the story "Denysko"; to indicate the expressive potential of incomplete syntactic units, which is achieved with the help of such sentences in the writer's artistic text. Methods. The article uses the methods of analysis of linguistic phenomena, thanks to which the theoretical foundations of the study of the problem of incomplete sentences are summarized and specified, the terminological definitions of the phenomena of incomplete sentences are analyzed, commented on and distinguished. The method of statistical analysis of incomplete sentences in the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo was used. Results. The frequency of use of incomplete sentences in the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo is summarized. Incomplete sentences with the omission of the subject were found to be the most frequent, the less frequently used circumstances were incomplete structures with the omission of the predicate, very few were sentences with a non-verbal object. Originality. Incomplete sentences are an integral element of the structure of an artistic text. The extent of the load carried by incomplete sentences in the artistic texts of the language of works for children, the frequency of their use in the ideal style of the famous Ukrainian writer Yevhen Hutsalo has not yet been the object of close attention of researchers, therefore the consideration of such incomplete structures is quite relevant. Conclusion. Incomplete sentences are a separate structural and semantic type of syntactic constructions, which has all the categories and features of a sentence, so they should not be considered as “insufficient” units, etc. The specificity of incomplete sentences is insufficiently studied both in theory and in practical implementation in speech. We see the perspective of the research in the further analysis of the actual material and in-depth study of the features of such units of expressive syntax in various texts of artistic style.
The article reveals the meaning of the concept of "sustainability" as one of the components of speech culture. The importance of cultural ecological speech and the correct use of lexical norms is understood. The application of a complex research methodology, the basis of which is statistical analysis, elements of descriptive and structural methods, which is due to the richness of the material involved in the research, which is designed to serve to achieve a deeper disclosure of the topic, contributed to the clarification of how words and actions affect the work of the brain and the physiological state people, how harmful an aggressive environment and toxic, negatively colored words are for the brain. The most used words and expressions with a negative meaning by today's youth became the empirical material of the study. Their meaning and origin, appropriateness of use in communication is clarified. The main principles of avoiding destructive vocabulary in speech are outlined.
Distributed representations of words encode lexical semantic information, but what type of information is encoded and how? Focusing on the skip-gram with negative-sampling method, we found that the squared norm of static word embedding encodes the information gain conveyed by the word; the information gain is defined by the Kullback-Leibler divergence of the co-occurrence distribution of the word to the unigram distribution. Our findings are explained by the theoretical framework of the exponential family of probability distributions and confirmed through precise experiments that remove spurious correlations arising from word frequency. This theory also extends to contextualized word embeddings in language models or any neural networks with the softmax output layer. We also demonstrate that both the KL divergence and the squared norm of embedding provide a useful metric of the informativeness of a word in tasks such as keyword extraction, proper-noun discrimination, and hypernym discrimination.
The article analyzes the notions of “Zuordnung” in K. Larenz and R. Alexy as, respectively, the addition of a fact, literally: a life process, the circumstances of a case, to a type, that is, to a non-semantic norm, and the addition of new norms to already established norms. The purpose of the study was to determine the meaning of the term “Zuordnung” in the jurisprudence of K. Larenz’s assessments and R. Alexy’s theory of rational legal discourse. Four questions are considered: about the lexical meaning of the word “Zuordnung” in German and the methods of its translation into Ukrainian, about the concepts of inclusion in K. Larenz and R. Alexy, as well as about the relationship between these concepts. In the first case, it is stated that the word “Zuordnung” in German is a tracing of the Latin word “coordinatio”, and in Ukrainian it can potentially be translated, depending on the context, in several ways, in particular, the words “combination”, “subordination”, “coordination”, “assignment” and “attachment”. Of these options, which do not coincide in everything, the word “attachment” can best convey the meaning that both K. Larenz and R. Alexy mainly put into the concept of “Zuordnung”. The study of the concept of attachment in K. Larenz demonstrates that the author uses the word “Zuordnung” initially in three aspects: in the structure of the legal norm as the attachment of the actual composition of the norm to the legal consequence of the norm; in the theory of types as the attachment of a life process or the circumstances of a case to a type and within the framework of the analysis of the so-called concrete-general concept, which is closely related to Hegel’s philosophy. Later addition in K. Larenz is associated mainly with the theory of types. This leads to the fact that attachment is primarily an alternative to subsummation and consists in the coordinating conjunction of fact and type, which is understood as a normative-empirical form of thinking. As part of the analysis of the concept of inclusion in R. Alexy, it was established that the word “Zuordnung” (attachment) in him has a direct relationship, as can already be seen from the term he chose, to the formation of the so-called “attached norms”. In this case, the addition, as well as the coordinating conjunction, but not the fact and (normative real) type, but the norm and norm, consists in adding new norms to the positive legal system: either the addition of principles that were legally invalid before that, or the addition of rules based on a weighing of principles. Therefore, in R. Alexy, inclusion is a prerequisite or a complement to subsumption, as well as the result of correct reasoning. The latter indicates why in the theory of rational legal discourse (argumentation, justification) so much attention is paid to joining. As a result of the comparison of the concepts of inclusion in K. Larenz and R. Alexy, it is noted that these concepts are alternative, and therefore the use of one approach leads to the leveling of the applied value of the other. R. Alexy’s concept of inclusion as a so-called external justification, which in complex cases is a prerequisite for subsumption (internal justification), has an advantage over K. Lorenz’s concept of inclusion as an alternative to subsumption of internal justification. This is explained by the fact that the first approach leads to operating with a norm capable of subsumption as a result, and the second – to operating as such incapable of subsumption, as a matter of fact, a norm-type. Therefore, the addition of K. Larenz takes place instead of subsumation, and the addition of R. Alexy along with subsumption and to it.
Background. Nowadays, almost all indexed journals expect submissions in English, which is a great challenge for exophonic authors. Code-switching context, where cross-language effects, especially native language interference, are well distinct, is critical for approaching the dilemma. Navigating the complicated issues of language-related challenges will be impossible without referring to three crucial levels of written production: lexical, syntactic, and textual. In our investigation, we address the nature of potential errors and their inter- and intralingual origins. In particular, we identify and interpret the deviations from Standard English in scholarly research writing of Ukrainian authors in the field of life sciences, exemplify and classify errors into categories based on the type of language misuse. Materials and Methods. Language material for the study comprised 50 manuscripts submitted by authors from Ukraine to the journal “Studia Biologica”. This research is a mixed-method study encompassing descriptive qualitative and descriptive quantitative methods. Content analysis was employed as the data gathering technique. The analysis of texts was focused on tracing deviations from consistent principles and rules of Standard English and linguistic features of English research discourse and encompassed such steps as highlighting the error, cross-checking and stating the deviation, listing and classifying the errors, and tracing a possible connection of the error to authors’ first language interference. Results. The study identified language areas where Ukrainian authors fail to effectively communicate their ideas to the global academic community. At the textual level, the problem areas encompass defective paragraph structure and excessive verbosity. At the syntactic level, the most critical deviations from the language and stylistic norm comprised misuses of word order and clauses, wordy and confusing sentences with multiple issues that hinder the readability of text. The most widespread grammatical mistakes include missing predicates, faulty subject-verb agreement, incorrect forms of the verb, and inappropriate use of articles, pronouns, demonstratives and quantifiers. At the lexical level, the prevalent errors relate to various types of loan translation, but also include improper word choices and poor vocabulary. Orthographic mistakes, though in minority, refer to the spelling of toponyms, capitalisation, switching from American to British orthographic standards and other random spelling errors. Conclusions. An insight into the nature of the analysed deviations suggests the presence of both intra- and interlingual factors that cause mistakes in papers submitted for publication in the field of life sciences. The error analysis can be beneficial in the educational process for both educators and practitioners. Proper understanding of the functional mechanism of the mistakes might increase the awareness of the potential pitfalls and consequently help avoid them. The classification of errors can be adopted in the educational process and contribute to the development of error pedagogy.
The subject of this article is the most frequent linguistic units in the speech of modern embroiderers, which arise as a result of deviations from the language norm and testify to the high linguo-creative potential of the craftswomen discourse. However, the author also draws attention to the lexical unit class that are characteristic of the embroiderers speech and have a terminological character. Productive models for creating new lexical units are subjected to a detailed analysis: suffixation, addition, contraction, truncation of a phrase, abbreviation. The analysis showed that the morphological suffixal way of word formation exceeds in the modern embroiderers speech, addition and abbreviation are represented to a lesser extent. In addition, it was found that one of the active mechanisms for the transformation of lexical units is semantic derivation, which leads to the expansion of the conceptual scope of traditional lexemes. In most cases, this process occurs as a result of metaphorical transfer. The author of the article also considers cases of proverbs transformation in the embroiderers speech, reflecting the special worldview of embroiderers, and also being an opportunity for free self-expression. Most of them are transformations of traditional Russian proverbs, and new variants in speech become more common than their prototypes – canonical proverbs. Changes in the construction-sources are determined by the craftswomen intentions and affect different levels — semantics and structure. At the same time, the replacement of the proverb component becomes the most frequent creative mechanism. The language material collected and analyzed by us allows us to conclude that the speech of modern embroiderers has a high linguistic and creative potential and a wide range of language game markers, indicating the emergence of a special subculture of craftswomen at the present time.
Being a dynamic system, the language continuously evolves and perfects its means of expression simultaneously with the transformations in society and technological progress. Currently, the foreign lexical elements, especially from English, represent one of the main sources of enriching the Romanian language vocabulary. As long as the use of Anglicisms cannot be prevented, they must be recorded in a correct form, with recommendations regarding their adaptation to the norms of the language. In the present study, we examine the behavior of Anglicisms in the third edition of DOOM with special reference to orthography, pronunciation and grammatical usage indications (articulation, plural formation). We analyze the words taken from the English language that have recently acquired a wider circulation in the actual use and have penetrated into certain domains such as information technology, the business environment, science, entertainment, fashion.
This article is devoted to stylistic norms and problems of typology of speech deviations, about the varieties of lexical and stylistic errors in speech.
The need for communication is fundamental for humans. Communication is an integral element of peopleʼs existence, the most important condition for full-fledged formation and development of personality. Modern science considers communication as an exchange of information, interaction, and perception of a person by a person. The entire system of human attitudes towards other people is realized in communication. It covers various areas of social interaction of people including the professional field of activity. Interpersonal communication is mostly dialogic and is an indispensable component of professional medical activity. It largely determines the relationship between the doctor and the patient from the very beginning and contributes to the establishment of the necessary trust between them. The article includes an analysis of recent publications devoted to investigations of the issue of training future foreign doctors in professional communication in institutions of higher education. The article highlights the need of modern society for specialists of high culture who possess professional communication skills, high adaptability, and professional mobility. The authors emphasize that the modern language training of a future foreign doctor should be focused on teaching the situational and contextual adequate use of language as a means of oral and written communication in all areas of professional communication. The professional speech of future medical workers is the mastery of literary language norms, professional terminology, and standardized constructions of the medical field, the ability to use language tools in accordance with the purpose and situation of communication. The authors hope that a short-term Ukrainian language medical terminology course for foreign students of the third year of a school of medicine developed by the teachers of the Language Training Department of International Education Institute for Study and Research of V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University will help students to master professional language skills. The course is designed for 20 hours of classroom practical lessons. The proposed course implements the set tasks in the formation of the terminological competence of medical students, contains the most productive teaching methods, and defines the stages of dealing with professional vocabulary: 1) presentation of new vocabulary; 2) automation of lexical skills; 3) organization of repetition of studentsʼ acquisition of vocabulary and quality control of the previously learned material. The authors see prospects for further research in identifying the conditions for the formation of the readiness of medical students for professionally oriented communication, in the design of the model of formation of the culture of the future specialist under the conditions of professionally oriented communication and experimental verification of its effectiveness.
Abstract While raising has been allegedly claimed to not exist in Arabic, we here present data from the vernacular varieties to illustrate how these have lexicalized and grammaticalized innovative lexical raising predicates meaning ‘seem, appear, as though’, and by association, the grammaticalization of the raising structures in which such predicates appear. The full array of it -expletive type constructions, subj -to- subj raising and copy raising structures are manifest in the dialects. In the latter construction, as is the case in Standard Arabic, some dialects employ a designate complementizer form. Our discussion on raising reveals that hyperraising, a sub-type of subj -to- subj raising involving a finite embedded clause, is available across the vernacular varieties. The comparative overview taken in this work suggests that canonical lexical verbal raising predicates are not the norm in Arabic, and that in the overwhelming majority of the dialects, the lexical verbal predicates that mean ‘appear, seem’ either stop short from subcategorizing for a clausal complement, or if they do, they only allow an it -expletive type of structure. This has in turn paved the way for a range of verbal, nominal and prepositional items to undergo a number of semantic, functional, and structural developments that synchronically avail the vernacular varieties with the possibility of varied sorts of raising structures.
OBJECTIVES: to analyze the social representations of rural women about being a woman in the rural context and its implications for sexual and reproductive health. METHODS: this is a descriptive qualitative study with data triangulation, based on the Theory of Social Representations, developed with 31 women who live in the rural context of Minas Gerais (MG/BR). An in-depth interview with a semi-structured script was conducted. A lexical analysis was performed with the help of the ALCESTE 2012 software. RESULTS: the family relationship, especially the couple's, demonstrated subjectivities and was permeated by violence and normalized sexual practice. The imagery dimension of the ideal family seems to be responsible for exerting domination over rural women. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS: rural women are subject to the norms and prescriptions of a patriarchal society. It is urgent to increase attention to sexual and reproductive health in an egalitarian and liberating way in order to minimize the consequences of machismo and conservatism.
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In old Georgian, number agreement had a formal character, and the expression of grammatical number evolved over the language's history.Notably, interesting instances of synesis have been confirmed in the K-79 manuscript and other Georgian sources of Lenten Triodion.These examples reveal that the verb form not only corresponds to the form of the noun it agrees with but also takes into account its semantics.Consequently, intriguing patterns of influence on the form emerge as a result of semantics.Examples of synesis are the instances of agreement in number between actants realized by first-and second-person pronouns with the predicate.As is commonly known, these pronouns express plurality lexically and not formally.The examples discussed in the article prove once again that the historical basis of number agreement is undergoing a change.The formal principle, which was the norm in the Old Georgian Language, is gradually being replaced by the semantic principle.
The article raises sociolinguistic and cognitive issues of the interaction between the Russian and English languages in modern Russia. The study aims to show how blending of two different language codes affects thinking, consciousness, culture, the spiritual state of individuals and the entire nation. The article highlights objective and subjective factors contributing to the emergence of a hybrid language or the so-called Runglish. I identify the stimuli motivating Russian speakers to use it. The paper draws attention to the lack of conditions in modern Russian society for forming a protective speech culture mechanism, i. e. a native speaker’s intuition. The research shows how linguistic norms (including grammar) are being loosened; the distinctions between the literary language and jargons are being erased. The illustrative material reflects typical cases of usage. The paper sets vitally important objectives of preserving and protecting the Russian literary language, the emotive and cultural code of the Russian nation as well as the revival of the Russian mentality (thinking in language forms). I emphasise the need for a circumspect language policy, awareness raising, and responsibility of Russian public figures. The study applies cognitive, contextual, comparative, lexical-etymological, word-formation, and grammatical analysis.
Purpose: This review research paper explores the evolving landscape of language usage in the Digital Age, focusing on the trends and transformations witnessed in online communication. The primary objective is to analyze the dynamic interplay between language and digital technologies, unveiling the shifts in linguistic patterns and communication strategies within virtual spaces. Theoretical Framework: Grounded in linguistic theories and digital communication studies, the paper adopts a comprehensive theoretical framework. It investigates the impact of digital platforms on language structures, sociolinguistic aspects, and the emergence of novel linguistic phenomena in the context of online interactions. Design/Methodology/Approach: A systematic literature review approach is employed to synthesize and analyze a broad spectrum of existing research on language in the Digital Age. The methodology encompasses a thorough examination of scholarly articles, empirical studies, and theoretical works that contribute to understanding the multifaceted dimensions of online language use. Findings: The paper presents a nuanced examination of the findings, revealing the intricate patterns of linguistic evolution in digital communication. It highlights the emergence of new lexical expressions, the adaptation of existing language norms, and the role of technology in shaping communicative practices. Additionally, the research identifies the influence of cultural, social, and contextual factors on digital language dynamics. Research, Practical & Social Implications: The study contributes valuable insights to both academic and practical domains. Scholars gain a deeper understanding of the intricate relationship between language and the Digital Age, informing future research directions. Practitioners in fields such as marketing, education, and technology benefit from practical implications, enhancing their ability to navigate and harness the evolving landscape of online communication. Moreover, the paper addresses the social implications of digital language transformations, shedding light on issues of inclusivity, digital literacy, and the potential impact on societal discourse. Originality/Value: This research paper stands out for its synthesis of diverse literature and its holistic approach to understanding language shifts in the Digital Age. By providing a comprehensive overview of trends and transformations in online communication, the paper contributes original insights that advance the current understanding of the subject. The value lies in its potential to guide future research, inform practical applications, and stimulate critical discussions on the intersection of language and digital technologies.
Cariani’s The Modal Future is a book about future language. At its heart is a challenge to the received symmetric picture of temporal language. Many think past tense and future auxiliaries are mirror images of each other: one simply has “later” where the other has “earlier.” The Modal Future aims to supplant this symmetric picture with an asymmetric one, where future thought and talk is modal, and explores issues in the pragmatics, epistemology, and cognition of future claims in the light of this asymmetric picture.Cariani motivates the asymmetric picture with a dilemma. “Will” appears to have properties characteristic of modal expressions. But existing modal accounts face a variety of extremely serious problems. Take the Peircean view, where “will φ” is true at w and t if and only if φ is true in all futures that are possible at w and t. Cariani shows this view makes a mess of our future credences. If I am about to toss a fair coin, what should my credence be that the following is true?(1) The coin will land heads.It is 0.5, of course. But the Peircean predicts it should be 0: I should be certain this universal claim has a counterexample. Cariani argues, convincingly in my view, none of the standard modal views ultimately do better.Cariani’s alternative, building on Cariani and Santorio 2018, is the selection semantics for “will.” This theory draws on the selection functions from Stalnaker’s theory of conditionals, which, given a world and a proposition, select the closest world where that proposition is true. On Cariani’s semantics, “will φ” is true at w just in case φ is true at the selected world with the same history as the actual world. Of course, this selected world just is the actual world, so, in simple unembedded contexts, “will φ” is simply equivalent to φ. (This equivalence is broken in various embedded contexts, such as conditionals, which add further information to input proposition for the selection function.) We get a nice account of the dilemma: “will” is indeed a modal, but its true modal nature is hidden in simple, unembedded claims.After sketching the basic idea, Cariani addresses important technical questions for the semantics. A particularly pressing question is how to secure the future orientation of “will” without disrupting the scope relations between “will” and negation. Cariani solves this issue by adapting Condoravdi 2001 account of future orientation in modals. This involves an event semantics, where verbs quantify over events and tenseless clauses are interpreted relative to worlds and intervals. In this framework, “will” effectively shifts the interval of evaluation: the embedded tenseless clause is evaluated relative to the interval starting at the time of utterance and continuing into the future indefinitely. This accounts for the future orientation of “will” without unwanted scope relations.From here, the book addresses a range of related questions, and the selection semantics becomes an important background assumption. One cluster of issues centers on assertion and the open future. Cariani, who is ultimately agnostic about openness, argues for a conditional claim: if the future is open, we should adopt a particular bivalent approach to openness.Cariani first argues against venerable, Aristotelian approach, where future claims have a third indeterminate truth value, when the future is open. This view faces a puzzle about assertion and the open future. The Aristotelian seems to predict no future contingents are assertable. Truth is a very plausible necessary condition on assertability. But many future contingents are assertable: I can for instance tell my friend that I will be arriving on the 1:30 train.Cariani endorses a bivalent indeterminist Thin Red Line view. On the Thin Red Line view, even when multiple futures are consistent with the present, one particular history has the privilege of being ours. On bivalent indeterminism about the future, future claims have classical truth values, even when they are not settled; it is simply indeterminate which particular classical value they have. So on Cariani’s Thin Red Line view, one history has the privilege of being the one we live in, but it is indeterminate which future is that thin red line is. Unlike other modal views, Cariani’s selection semantics is a good fit for this kind of view.This view has two interesting consequences. First, it is often indeterminate whether one has violated a norm of assertion. When I make my assertion about the train, it is indeterminate whether I have spoken truly, so it is also indeterminate whether I have violated the truth norm. Second, this status will eventually be resolved one way or the other: if the train did arrive on time, my assertion came true and so it is now determinate that the norm was not violated; if it did not arrive on time, it is now determinate the norm was violated. (I did wonder whether the Aristotelian will be satisfied: are future contingents not often determinately assertable at their time of utterance?)The book also deals with the topic of future epistemology and cognition, concluding with a discussion of a puzzle from Ninan 2022. Future claims seem to require weaker evidence to be assertable than past claims. For instance, a meteorologist may be able, on the basis of a century of past weather data, to assert:(2) It will snow in Boston in winter 2023.But once winter 2023 has come and gone, the meteorologist cannot use the same meteorological data to assert:(3) It snowed in Boston in winter 2023To assert (3), they require further direct evidence. This is puzzling—are they not saying the same thing on both occasions?Cariani says they are not. Cariani proposes a lexical account, where predicate meanings place restrictions on the speaker’s evidence. For instance, the semantic value of “died” in a context is treated as a partial function from a world w and individual x to truth values, one which only returns a truth value if the speaker in the context has evidence that settles whether x died in w. Cariani proposes these evidential requirements are removed in certain embeddings, particularly by modals. For instance, “must” clearly removes the evidential requirement: the meteorologist can say(4) It must have snowed in Boston in winter 2023.Given Cariani’s earlier claim that “will” is a modal, the lexical account predicts that (2) does not require the same direct evidence as (3).Every section of this book is deserving of extensive discussion, and, because of the book’s modular structure, one can engage with many of the main claims both individually and as a package. That being said, the claim that “will” is a modal undergirds very much of the discussion. I am convinced that, if “will” is a modal, Cariani’s semantics is the best currently on the market. The guiding idea of the selection semantics idea is ingenious, and the problems for its competitors are extremely serious. But I am not yet completely convinced of the antecedent: is “will” really a modal? I close with some remarks about the argument Cariani regards as the strongest, the argument from modal subordination.Roberts 1989 directed our attention to discourses like:(5) A wolf might come in. It would eat you first.While the second sentence lacks any overt conditional, the modal “would” is understood conditionally: I am saying that if a wolf came in, it would eat you first. This kind of reading prima facie appears to require a modal. Consider:(7)a. If John bought a book at all, it’ll be a mystery novel.b. He’s at home reading it right now.But Klecha 2014 notes that “will” also gives rise to modal subordination:(8) A wolf might come in. It will eat you first.So, the argument concludes, “will” is a modal.But on closer examination the data are messy. First, to my ear, the contrast is strongest in discourses with a mixture of tenses and/or auxiliaries. But a natural hypothesis here is that this mixture of tense and auxiliaries, rather than the absence of “will,” somehow blocks the subordination in (7b).Second, and relatedly, when we consider more uniform discourses, apparent subordination is easier. Cariani acknowledges apparent subordination is possible with the past. Consider:(9) If he went to the park yesterday, he had a sandwich. He enjoyed it.I note that future directed uses of the present also permit apparent subordination:(10) If it doesn’t rain on Monday, we go camping in Yellowstone that evening. We leave Yellowstone early on Tuesday morning.In (9), Cariani suggests that the second sentence is understood as being conjoined to the conditional consequent. But of course this kind of move would explain the original subordination data too.To Cariani’s mind, the most powerful data point is that “will” appears to go in for modal subordination across clause type. Consider:(11) Please do not throw paper towels in the toilet. It will clog.(12) Does Cinderella stay at the ball? The carriage will turn into a pumpkin!The conditional interpretations here cannot be due to conjunction. Furthermore, Cariani argues there are no parallel data when it comes to the past. Imperatives are necessarily future oriented, but past-oriented questions do seem to bear out a contrast, at least initially. Compare (12) to:(13) Did Cinderella stay at the ball? The carriage turned into a pumpkin!I think Cariani is right that subordination is not possible here. But a possible confounder here is that it is not always entirely straightforward to subordinate material from a past tense question, even when “will” is present. Consider:(14) Did you throw paper towels in the toilet? It will clog.I find the subordinated reading harder to access here than in (11), maybe not as crashingly bad as (13), but not as effortless as (11). A final data point is that it does seem possible to get modal subordination across clauses with the future directed present:(15) If Cinderella doesn’t leave before midnight, her carriage turns into a pumpkin. Do the footmen turn back into mice?So I am not sure modal subordination is a straightforward diagnostic of modality. It still could well be that the best account requires “will” to be a modal. To decide the issue, I suspect we will need some sustained attempt to develop a nonmodal alternative. (An alternative starting point: perhaps rather than reinterpreting the apparently subordinated claims, we simply add them to a derived context containing extra suppositions.)However this turns out, The Modal Future does extremely important work in articulating a significant and novel picture of our thought and talk about the future. Cariani covers an impressive amount of ground, proposing a range of interesting and novel views in a range of debates, and the discussion is consistently of very high quality. It is a must read for anyone working in these areas.
The article discusses the specifics of teaching the culture of Russian speech to bilingual students. The authors pay special attention to the main speech and grammatical errors that arise while studying the lexical and grammatical norms of the modern Russian literary language. The article offers a system of tasks for working out practical aspects of the culture of Russian speech both in the classroom and in the format of an online course for self-preparation of students. The work contains a number of practical recommendations for teachers of the discipline “Business communications and culture of speech” on teaching bilingual students.
Introduction. War has always been a powerful trigger for the emergence of newly formed words in the vocabulary of any language. The Ukrainian language is no exception, and in the wake of Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, it has been replenished with a significant number of neologisms. The Russian-Ukrainian war, which is still in the focus of the world community’s attention, has proven the multifaceted support of Ukraine in the international arena and has caused the appearance of numerous publications in the media space, including online publications in periodicals and posts on social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. That is why the translation of neologisms from Ukrainian into English in wartime media texts is particularly relevant. Purpose. The purpose of the article is to outline the main ways of translating into English emotionally charged neologisms that are inherent in wartime media texts. Methods. The integrated study of neologisms in wartime media space and their translation from Ukrainian into English involved the application of the following methods: the method of continuous sampling (for assembling neologisms in wartime media texts), the method of descriptive observation (for clarifying possible ways of translating neologisms), methods of analysis and synthesis (for systematization and classification of neologisms of various part-of-speech and word- formation affiliation, singling out pragmatic and stylistic peculiarities of their translation, formulation of conclusions). Results. The newly formed words and collocations in the Ukrainian language are mostly associated with well-known public figures and military leaders, military operations on the territory of certain geographical objects, names of weapons, etc. Some neologisms appeared only with the start of Russia’s full-scale invasion, while other already existing lexical items acquired new meanings. The common characteristic feature of all wartime neologisms is their emotional colouring. As a living flexible organism language is able to absorb like a sponge all the negative and positive human emotions of the Russian-Ukrainian war. Each neologism of the Ukrainian language is a reflection of the military actions and related phenomena that are currently taking place on the territory of Ukraine, as well as a kind of container of various emotions experienced by Ukrainians working on different fronts to defend their homeland. A significant layer of neologisms is emotionally loaded invective vocabulary, which serves as a kind of verbal means of liberation from the aggression caused by the Russian-Ukrainian war and finds its manifestation in swearing, mockery or cursing the occupiers. According to the results of the study, the typical ways of creating neologisms include affixation, composition, telescopy and shortening. Due to a thorough analysis of wartime neologisms in the Ukrainian and English media texts, it was found that the main translation techniques are transliteration, transcription, calquing, substitution, and explication. When dealing with catchphrases the most appropriate method is literary translation. In addition, the stylistic features of translating neologisms in wartime media texts include pejorative grammar – decapitalized proper names, graphon – a deliberate distortion of the spelling norm, metaphorical antonomasia – the use of proper names of historical figures, literary or biblical characters having a certain characteristic feature; euphemisms – tolerant words or phrases used to replace unpleasant and obscene words, periphrases – descriptive naming of certain objects by highlighting their characteristic features. Originality. The article presents the first attempt of making a deep insight into the translation peculiarities of the emotionally charged neologisms in wartime media texts. Conclusion. The results of the study prove that, on the one hand, the emotionally charged wartime neologisms serve to name new realities and concepts, and on the other hand, reflect the rethinking of reality through the prism of the Russian-Ukrainian war, the figurative thinking and the impressive sense of the Ukrainian humour. The main techniques of translating neologisms from Ukrainian into English in wartime media texts include transliteration, transcription, calquing, substitution, explication and literal translation of catchphrases. Pejorative grammar, graphon, metaphorical antonomasia, euphemization, and periphrasis are effective stylistic tools aimed at fulfilling the pragmatic function of protesting against the war and ridiculing the occupiers. We consider further research of the possible ways of translating into English non-equivalent neologisms in modern military discourse to be much promising.
The link between linguistic deviation and translation techniques is enshrined in the conventionality of language use and communication. Linguistic deviation occurs when a text ignores conventional norms of a language in order to communicate a certain artistic merit and draw attention to the meaning of the message. The main objective of this paper is to interrogate how translation techniques used on bilingual billboard slogans in Cameroon lead to linguistic deviation and how such deviations affect communication and sociolinguistics. The corpus of this paper is composed of fifteen bilingual billboard slogans purposively selected from different parts of Cameroon. In terms of methodology, the data was collected by taking pictures of billboards and extracting their slogans. A qualitative descriptive method of document analysis was used with the help of Leech’s linguistic deviation theory and Jakobson’s communication functions. Regarding the results, the study identified graphological, semantical, grammatical and lexical deviations on the selected billboards caused by translation techniques like literal, reduction, adaptation, borrowing, discursive creation, amplification and transposition. As a result of linguistic deviation, the messages that were finally conveyed through bilingual billboards looked absurd and sometimes nonsensical. The paper recommends that certified translators should be employed to translate billboard slogans from French to English.
The paper focuses on the analysis of the means of representation of the informant’s linguistic personality at phonetic, lexical, grammatical, cognitive, and pragmatic levels in the oral discourse. The material of the study is a transcript of an audio recording of one interview from the author’s multimedia corpus “Everyone has their own war”. The interview was recorded in the Ukrainian language in one of the most emotionally, psychologically, and physically difficult moments of the informant’s life. Despite a certain limitation of language material, the peculiarities of the speech manifestations of the linguistic personality of the informant, a twenty-nine age widow (a woman and a mother), are representative since she describes her life and the life of her family after the full-scale invasion on February 24 and until May 2022. The analysis of the informant’s linguistic personality shows that the verbal and semantic specificity is determined by the volume of lexical items, the peculiarities of nominating speech objects and the choice of means for their characteristic, as well as the style of speech. The informant’s speech is characterized by violations of literary norms: it is full of adapted and unadapted lexical and morphological units of the Russian language, and improper pronunciation of words, which in general correlates with her cultural and educational level. The informant’s vocabulary is pragmatically functional and determined by the level of education, social status, type of employment and living conditions. It clearly reflects the essence and content of the linguistic personality. The vocabulary of the everyday sphere prevails, onyms (toponyms, anthroponyms, ergonyms) and a small amount of military lexicon are also registered. Emotional and evaluative interjections with a positive or negative assessment are representatives of the emotional, functional, and semantic sphere of the informant’s speech. The connotative coloration is provided, in particular, by the verbal characterization of the occupiers, which includes ethnonymic nicknames, including those based on appearance, language, and behaviour. In terms of content and values, the discursive activity of the informant, represented by referential semantic elements, is determined by extralinguistic factors and it correlates with universal values. The motivational and pragmatic aspect of linguistic personality is grounded on the desire to speak out, and includes life or situational goals, which are reflected in the discourse. It is manifested, in particular, in the manner of speech, in the choice of markers used to organize and control the discursive coherence. The analysis of the pragmatic markers included their functions, the specifics of their use and frequency.
The article is an analytical review of some problems of dictionary codification of Luxembourg German Standard. The relevance of the study lies in the fact that the Luxembourg variety of German Standard, which differs in a number of distinctive features from other national varieties of the German language, is still poorly studied. Some aspects of the study of the German language in Luxembourg, the criteria of the standard in general and the features of the Luxembourg standard of the German language in particular are briefly described. The main part of the study is the analysis of current lexicographic sources that codify the specific features of the pronunciation, grammar, lexical and semantic norms of the Luxembourg Standard. The results of the analysis of lexicographic sources, which are descriptive codifiers of the German Standard in Luxembourg, are presented: a pronunciation dictionary of the Standard High German language, the project “Regional Variation in the Grammar of Standard German”, dictionaries of varieties of the German language. The structure and content of the dictionary of the Luxembourg standard for the German language [Sieburg, 2022] are considered in detail. This includes general information about the mega-, macro- and microstructure of the dictionary, the subject and variable characteristics of the codified vocabulary, the features of the structure and content of dictionary entries. As a result of the analysis, a conclusion is made about the development of the normalizing activity of the Luxembourg German Standard and about the recognizing of this standard, which has specific features at different levels of the language system.
The relevance of the article. Charitable activities play an important role in the formation of value guidelines and moral norms of an individual and society as a whole. Its development is determined by various factors that occur in society. The start of active hostilities in Ukraine in 2022 affected all spheres of human existence. Among them, there were changes in the functioning and development strategies of charity events, in particular events. This issue needs clarification, because it will allow not only to understand the strategies of adaptation of this form of charity, but also to predict further ways of its transformation. That is why scientific, including socio-cultural analysis of the phenomenon of charity event is extremely relevant. The purpose of the article. To analyze charitable events in the socio-cultural space in the conditions of a full-scale Russian-Ukrainian war; to reveal the cultural, artistic, financial and technical factors affecting the organization and holding of events. The methodology. A cultural approach to the analysis of the mentioned problem demonstrates that the concept of charity belongs to certain historically developed and regulated norms of social actions that implement their worldview orientations and cultural values. The specifics of scientific intelligence led to the use of the structural-functional method, which made it possible to investigate specific functional characteristics and regularities. The method of content analysis and personal practical experience of holding events made it possible to determine the artistic features of conducting charity events, the method of terminological analysis helped to find out that the Polonism “impreza” successfully filled a gap in the lexical system of the Ukrainian language. The results. We believe that charity is one of the “material” factors of the spiritual culture of mankind. This phenomenon arose spontaneously at the beginning of human civilization. Subsequently, it developed as targeted attention and concrete help from society to people who are unable to independently solve the issue of personal livelihood due to a number of reasons (subjective or objective). If we trace the genesis of charity, it is possible to distinguish three main historical types that are peculiar to the Western European mentality: ancient, Christian and modern charity. It was revealed that today the prevalence of charity in Ukraine is rated as “high”. It has been found out that in terms of its artistic structure, the charity event has all the features inherent in such forms of stage art as collective concert, thematic spectacle, solo concert. However, when forming the concept of a charity event, the organizers should naturally and organically integrate an auction, exhibition, fair or active online donation into the structure of the event. An important factor in organizing a charity event is attracting external help and finding people you can rely on and who will show a genuine interest in this cause. Involvement in a charity project must be voluntary, following the “calling of the heart”. It can be assumed that true humanism is achieved exclusively in the conditions of practical realization of the essence of a person through his actions. The scientific novelty. The time of military aggression was systematized, the place and role of domestic artists in the charitable sphere was established. Sociocultural functions of the phenomenon of charity events in Ukraine were generalized. The practical significance. The data of this study reveal various types and forms of charity events as effective factors in fundraising. The materials of the article can be used for the practical organization of a charity project and the theoretical features of the organization of charity art projects studied by film director students. Conclusions. Charitable activity is a determining point of reference in the formation of moral and ethical values and humanistic relations in society. Thanks to the holding of charity events, a number of psychological, social and political issues are resolved, in particular, the formation of national identity, which is an integral factor of Ukraine’s national security. At the international level, artistic charity events primarily carry out “cultural diplomacy” with the aim of conveying the truth about Ukraine and the war in Ukraine, and more broadly — explaining and understanding what Ukraine and its culture actually are, what is its self-sufficiency and diversity, how this energy was manifested at different historical stages despite mostly unfavorable socio-political contexts.
The issue of studying the linguistic variation, caused by the stratification of society into different strata and groups, has not been solved so far, remaining one of the key issues in modern linguistics. This article deals with the concept “nonstandard dialect” in the framework of sociolinguistic research into the German-speaking tradition, which belongs to the field of studies of linguistic variability of the German language native speakers. Nonstandard dialects may differ from other forms of language existence, as well as from the literary language at all linguistic levels: phonological, grammatical, syntactical, lexical and idiomatic. We examine various forms of the vernacular existence, including urban vernaculars. The focus is on the consideration of the features characterizing language variations at phonological and phonetic levels. This is caused by the necessity of determining sources and patterns of linguistic variations at the phonetic level, one of which, in our opinion, may be the nonstandard dialect as one of the forms of language existence. The article touches upon such notions as: colloquial language, regional norms and regional peculiarities of pronunciation. The article presents some pronunciation peculiarities of Cologne inhabitants’ urban colloquial speech at the segmental level of the German language phonetic system.
The article analyzes scientific texts in the field of economics regarding compliance with the norms of modern Ukrainian literary language. The phenomenon of deviation from the language norm in professional texts at different levels of the language system is considered. The reasons for deviation from the language norm (so called “norm liberalization”) are analyzed. Main attention is focused on the phenomena of lexical tracing and various manifestations of this “norm liberalization”. Attention is drawn also to deviation from accentuation norms in the oral professional communication of economists. Typical deviations from the norms of the language at the lexical level are revealed: in verbal nouns, as well as adjectives, participles, and verbs, which is caused by the tracing of the foreign word formation models. The most common deviation from the morphological norms in the language of the analyzed scientific works are: irregularity of the genitive forms of nouns of the second declension of the masculine gender; use of the forms of the dative case instead of the genitive; use of the accusative case instead of the genitive. Deviations from the norms at the syntactic level can be qualified as tracing of syntactic means (phrases) inherent to Russian language. Deviations from the norms at the sentence level in modern scientific texts are usually associated with improper use of homogeneous parts of the sentence as well as with non-normative, excessive use of passive constructions. Deviations from the orthographic norms occur in words with the letter “ґ” in the root, which are characterized by alternating vowels, regarding the writing of the particle “не” and the prefix “не-” separately. Deviations from the punctuation norms are observed in sentences with adverbial inflections, interjections and word combinations, homogeneous and separable members, subordinate clauses. Consideration of the phenomenon of deviation from the language norm at different levels of the language system in scientific texts enables us to identify and systematize typical violations of the norms of the modern Ukrainian literary language in order to develop general recommendations that will serve as a guide in daily professional language use.
The purpose of the article is to highlight the question of philological and logical interpretation of legal norms. The novelty of the article is to show how the philological and logical interpretation of legal norms applied in practice. Within the framework of philological (grammatical) interpretation are distinguished two main types of analysis (analysis), which significantly affect the process of assessing the content of legal norms. The first type of analysis involves a holistic assessment of the semantic load of a word, an analysis of a word as a lexical unit. Certain rules (plain meaning rule; legal definition) developed in jurisprudence and used during lexical analysis are singled out. The specified rules are very similar in orientation. The first establishes that it doesn't give the same meaning to different terms without sufficient grounds. Second, identical terms within the same legal act no give different meanings without sufficient grounds. Within the framework of linguistic-logical interpretation, recommended to pay attention to the communication context that arises when using language. Logical interpretation consists in clarifying the content of a legal norm by comparing its content with other norms in the field of law. It was established that a number of signs of a logical method of interpretation include the following: a set of logical methods of interpretation; a means of deciphering the meaning of the legal norm; purposeful mental activity. Conclusions. Linguistic (grammatical, morphological, textual) and logical methods of interpretation are the main ones, while others are a natural addition to them. However, we adhere to the view that there is no division into basic and additional ways of interpreting legal norms. Each is an independent way of interpretation. However, in order to clarify the content and meaning of a legal norm, it is not always necessary to apply all the above methods of interpretation. Sometimes it is enough to limit yourself to only a few of them. This fact does not yet give grounds to consider other methods of interpretation as additional or to ignore them. Since, most often, the very use of one of them can fundamentally change the opinion of the interpreter and help in clarifying the will of the legislator.
Порталы городского и регионального руководства отражают требование обязательности общения официальных властей с населением в виртуальной среде, институциональны по дискурсивной направленности, содержат негомогенные средства передачи информации и оформления коммуникации. Официальный портал администрации г. Омска (https://www.admomsk.ru/web/guest/main) рассматривается в аспекте коммуникативно-деятельностного подхода с целью установления способов передачи информации, организации общения с разными группами адресата, функций вербальных и иных регулятивов. Теоретическая значимость исследования состоит в применении двухэтапной методологии, включающей оценку регулятивов разной природы, установление их взаимосвязи с когнитивными и коммуникативными моделями виртуальной среды, выявление текстов, сориентированных на социально ограниченного адресата, установление их разноуровневого состава. Практическая значимость связана с характером полученных результатов, касающихся наличия в структуре портала типового навигационного каркаса с простой системой линейных вертикальных и горизонтальных связей, представленности на содержательном уровне взаимосвязанных вербальных и визуальных компонентов, обусловленности их соотношения целями раздела, актуальностью информации для адресанта и адресата, значимостью поликодовых моделей, передающих региональную информацию, воздействующих на эмоциональную сферу адресата – жителя города. В результате исследования были сделаны выводы о ведущей роли в реализации стратегии информирования тематического, логического, сюжетно-композиционного уровней контента и его частей, функционировании многоплановой системы регулятивов, наличии эксплицитных визуальных (горизонтальных) регулятивов, локализующих внимание адресата с помощью цвета, размера, пространственного расположения, репрезентирующих определенную тему, проблему, информацию, визуальных вертикальных регулятивов, связанных с призывами к конкретным действиям, визуальных скрытых регулятивов (фотографий, инфографики, воздействующих на эмоциональную и эстетическую сферы адресата, диаграмм, графиков, таблиц, служащих для концентрации большого объема информации, упрощения ее восприятия), существование которых обнаруживается только после открытия гиперссылок, эксплицитных вербальных горизонтальных и вертикальных регулятивов, номинирующих разделы контента, гиперссылок, передающих информацию и через нее лексическими, стилистическими, цифровыми, графическими средствами осуществляющих «якорение» внимания адресата, полимодальных регулятивов. Non-homogeneous (polycode, polymodal, multimodal) texts have long become part of modern communication (both media and official business). The requirement for mandatory communication of official authorities, public and party organizations with the population in a virtual environment has given rise to official portals of regional governments, ministries at various levels, and city administrations. These virtual objects are institutional because they have a discursive orientation, specific means of information transfer and communication design. The communicative-activity approach is applicable to the texts contained on the official portals of the city administration (in this article we are talking about the virtual portal of the Administration of Omsk Omsk. rf, located at: https://www.admomsk.ru/web/guest/main). The purpose of the article is to evaluate the ways of transmitting information, organizing communication with different age and social groups of the addressee in terms of the manifestation in them of visual, verbal, multimodal regulators that implement communicative and cognitive models of the virtual institutional environment. Material for this study: texts posted on the virtual portal of the administration of the city of Omsk (Omsk. rf.). The research methodology includes two stages: 1. Evaluation of visual, verbal, multimodal regulators, their communicative orientation in terms of expressing communicative and cognitive models of the virtual institutional discursive environment; 2. Identification of texts aimed at certain social and age groups of addressees, establishing their informational, semantic, communicative, cognitive composition as an environment for forming the image of the addressee and addressee. The main results of the analysis of the form and content of the portal showed the following. The portal structure includes a typical navigation frame with a fairly simple system of linear vertical and horizontal links. The content level is represented by interconnected verbal and visual components. Their different ratio in different parts of the content, the quality and quantity of inhomogeneous units is due to the goals of the section (transmission of information / impact on the emotive, aesthetic sphere of the addressee), the relevance of the information contained for the addresser and addressee. The communicative and cognitive levels form verbal and visual communicative and cognitive models that convey a predominantly regional formation, affecting the emotional sphere of an addressee that is indefinite in social, gender, age terms - a city resident, establishing an interactive connection with the latter. The communicative-activity approach to a non-homogeneous text of an institutional type - the official portal of the Administration of the city of Omsk, showed a variety of means of communication (visual and verbal), one-sidedness of communication, typical for virtual objects of this level. The method of designating a collective addresser is indicated in the name of the portal through an indication of ownership (portal of the Administration of Omsk), corresponds to the legal norms of institutional discourse. The category of the addresser is specified at the factual level in the part of the portal “Administration” with the help of the Mayor’s personal page, description of the Mayor’s office, legal grounds for activity, etc. The addresser’s communication is focused on a regionally limited collective addressee - residents of Omsk (Omsk). Less often, the addressee is limited by territory, age, social group. The category of the addressee in the texts of the portal is expressed by indirect means - the names of age social, gender and other groups and their representatives in the headings of the content and within the texts that fill it. Special appeals to an indefinite addressee are single, associated with current events in the city, weather, etc. The structure of the horizontal-vertical links of the portal’s navigation frame, the “duplication” of the content components in the header and footer parts direct the addressee’s attention to the hyperlinks he needs, ensuring comfort and utility of perception. But the titles of these hyperlinks do not reveal the impactful (emotive, expressive, aesthetic) strategies that are found in a number of pieces of content. They are implemented using a variety of static and dynamic infographics, they are found only after opening a hyperlink. The leading means of polycode, polymodal, multimodal implementation of the informing strategy are the thematic, logical, plot-compositional levels of the content of the portal as a whole, texts in its parts. The nominations of hyperlinks and the leads of the texts contained in them, together with the photographs accompanying the links, perform the functions of attracting the reader’s attention and informing. The portal contains a multifaceted system of regulators due to the multimodal nature of this virtual object. The system includes: explicit visual (horizontal) regulators that attract and localize the attention of the addressee with the help of color, size, location in the space of the portal interface, creating contrast, meaning a certain topic, problem, information or supplementing it; visual vertical regulators associated with calls for specific actions; visual hidden regulators (photos, infographics - photo report, photo report, photo story, photo tour, performing the functions of influencing the emotional and aesthetic spheres of the recipient’s perception; diagrams, graphs, drawings, tables, performing the functions of concentrating a large amount of information, illustrating, simplifying perception), the existence of which is found only after opening hyperlinks; explicit verbal horizontal and vertical regulators that nominate sections of content, hyperlinks, etc., conveying mainly information and through it by lexical, stylistic (a combination of neutral, special and colloquial vocabulary), digital, graphic (font, underlining, color highlighting) means that implement “anchoring” the attention of the addressee; polymodal regulations (video about the professional activities of employees of the City Administration, the mayor, city utilities).
This article talks about the study of language levels in world linguistics, as well as the need to create a lexical basis of levels in the modern Uzbek literary language.
Key Message: Awake mapping should be considered using appropriate and customized testing paradigms during resection of dominant SMA gliomas. The frontal lobe (FL) is the most common site of occurrence of adult diffuse gliomas.[1] On the lateral surface, it broadly consists of the primary motor area (M1), the premotor region (dorsal and ventral), and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The dorsal premotor cortex is located in the superior and middle frontal gyri. Histologically, the agranular area located in the medial frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor area (M1) is identified as the supplementary motor area (SMA), which is further divided into SMA proper and pre-SMA. These areas are involved in planning and smooth execution of complex motor functions and via relays from the dorsal language stream modulate speech generation and phonological processing,[2] respectively. Lesions involving the SFG pose a specific challenge due to partial or complete involvement of pre-SMA and SMA regions as well as the subcortical networks. Though widely thought to be reversible, the classical SMA syndrome, as originally described by Laplane, clearly described persistent deficits in motor dexterity and bimanual complex movements, besides speech initiation.[3] If these functions are to be preserved, awake mapping of motor cognition and speech is mandatory. Objective In this article, we demonstrate the technique of resecting a dominant superior frontal gyrus tumor involving the pre-SMA and SMA region under awake conditions with DES emphasizing the need to consider awake mapping to prevent prolonged/permanent language and motor deficits. Clinical Presentation A 40-year-old male, right-handed engineer came with a history of two episodes of generalized tonic clonic seizures approximately 2 months back, which was controlled by a single antiepileptic agent with no breakthrough seizures. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain [Figure 1] showed a T2 hyperintense, T1 isointense, non-contrast enhancing, diffuse infiltrative intra-axial mass involving the left superior frontal gyrus and the dominant SMA. Further evaluation with functional MRI (fMRI) showed BOLD signal activation on covert speech task abutting the posteroinferior margin of the tumor representing vPMC (ventral premotor cortex) and DTI (diffusion tensor imaging) showing frontal aslant tract (FAT) and corticospinal tract (CST) abutting the posterior surface of the tumor [Figure 1].Figure 1: Pre-operative multi-planar MRI scans; T2 WI (a): axial section, (b): coronal section, and (c): sagittal section showing a diffuse infiltrative heterogeneously hyperintense lesion in left superior frontal gyrus. (d): No post-gadolinium enhancement. (e): fMRI showing BOLD signal activation of vPMC abutting the posterior border of tumor. (f): 3D-segmented DTI showing the fronto-aslant tract FAT (Pink) and CST (Blue) abutting the posterior border of tumorSurgery: Left frontoparietal awake craniotomy and resection of superior frontal gyrus glioma under intra-operative neuromonitoring and navigated ultrasound guidance. Equipment used: Navigated ultrasound system: Brainlab KICK navigation with ultrasound navigation software (BRAINLAB AG, Munich, Germany) coupled with a high-end cranial ultrasound machine (bk5000®; BK Medical, Denmark) using an N13C5 navigated curvilinear probe. Mapping and monitoring: NimEclipse (version 4.2.422) (Medtronics Inc., Minneapolis. MN, USA) with a bipolar 50-Hz cortical stimulator, a monopolar stimulator (train-of-five pulses), and cortical strip motor evoked potentials (MEPs). Anesthesia: Scalp block and initial sedation (dexmedetomidine) with laryngeal mask airway (LMA). Position: Right lateral, neck neutral, head fixed on the Mayfield three pin fixation system, and pressure points well padded. Incision: Left fronto-parieto-temporal question mark incision. Steps of Surgery Comfortable lateral position on a horse shoe Starting sedation and LMA insertion Pin site block followed by placement of head pins Navigation registration and marking incision Complete local scalp block followed by painting and draping (this is done after the navigation registration to avoid inaccuracies in surface matching that may arise when the anesthetic is infiltrated in the scalp) Frontotemporal craniotomy (wide exposure) Pre-durotomy 3D navigated intra-operative ultrasound (3D NUS) to delineate the tumor extent Awakening the patient and removing LMA at durotomy. 10–20 min for the patient to be fully cooperative for neuropsychological tests Cortical mapping with DES using specific tests (number counting, spontaneous motor twitches and active motor task, picture naming) to identify the functional boundaries Circumferential pial coagulation and subpial dissection of tumor bearing gyrus Subcortical mapping to identify and preserve the white matter networks of the SMA (tests as above) Completion of resection and enmass removal of the specimen Resection control 3DNUS to confirm the resection status. Video Link https://youtu.be/PJWljVA3msU QR Code: Video Timeline With Audio Transcript 00:00 to 00:19: In this video, we would like to describe the principles of surgery as well as the technical aspects of awake craniotomy and mapping for a diffuse low-grade glioma of the dominant superior frontal gyrus located close to the premotor cortex and underlying subcortical networks, emphasizing the role of awake mapping and monitoring. 00:20 to 00:55: This was a young engineer, right-handed, who presented with seizures and no neurological deficits, and on neurocognitive assessment, he only had mild semantic fluency affected. MRI multi-planar T1, T2 images showed a non-enhancing T2 hyper-intense lesion in the left superior frontal gyrus involving the SMA region. Medially, the tumor involved cingulum reaching up to and indenting the corpus callosum, there was negligible contrast enhancement, suggestive of a diffuse lower-grade glioma, probably IDH mutant. 00:56 to 01:27: It is important to understand that on the dominant side, besides motor integration, the SMA region is also involved and important for speech initiation. Besides cortical networks, the subcortical substrates at risk include the cingulum inferomedially, callosal fibers and the frontal aslant posteroinferiorly along with the corticospinal tract, and the SLF-arcuate terminations in the middle frontal gyrus laterally. The IFOF itself is relatively far away. 01:28 to 02:15: This patient was taken up for the awake craniotomy and asleep–awake technique. Tumor extent is evident in the superior frontal gyrus outline. Cortical mapping commenced with identifying the primary motor area using monopolar mapping. Then bipolar stimulation was used for establishing the threshold for further mapping. First, anarthia was elicited (not shown here), and using the same threshold of 2 milliamps, the negative motor phenomenon of stoppage of movement of the upper limb was mapped just posterior to the tumor boundary. At the same threshold with picture naming, there was speech delay seen at the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is the termination of the IFOF. Thus, the functional cortical margins were outlined. 02:16 to 03:06: Once done, subpial circumferential dissection was commenced of the entire tumor-bearing gyrus, simultaneously monitoring the patient for motor and speech functions. General principles of subpial dissection ensure a complete gyral resection. The controlled ultrasonic aspirator is a very useful tool to prevent pial injury. At the white matter level, functional mapping is essential. In this case, associative motor speech areas of the pre-SMA fronto-aslant fibers and the motor execution networks, the frontostriatal fibers, were encountered on bipolar mapping, marking the limits of subcortical resection posteriorly and laterally, where a thin layer of tumor was left behind to avoid permanent deficits in dexterity and motor movement. 03:07 to 04:35: Circumferential resection was carried out all around with constant monitoring of the patient as described earlier. Medially, the superior frontal gyrus and the anterior cingulate were resected subpially, carefully preserving the distal branches of the anterior cerebral artery complex. In the awake patient, sometimes, this may elicit pain, and therefore, this step can be optionally done once the patient is put asleep at the end of surgery. En-block removal is completed, leaving a small nubbin behind at the base, overlying the eloquent white matter. Then this is gradually removed layer by layer using an ultrasonic aspirator, all the time constantly monitoring the patient. Resection was confirmed using intra-operative ultrasound. The positively mapped subcortical regions were depicted in the cavity here. Proximity of these fibers to the tumor edge reinforced the need to map them under awake conditions. The summary of the mapped regions is diagrammatically represented here. 04:36 to 04:54: Post-operative MRI confirms a near total resection with a thin sliver of tumor posteriorly where the negative motor networks are encountered. Preservation of the networks is confirmed on the post-operative tractography. 04:56 to 06:41: Post-operatively, this patient had no motor deficits; speech and comprehension were intact. However, difficulty in initiation of spontaneous speech and perseveration was noted. Reading and writing were intact. There was perseveration noted and difficulty in initiation of speech. He is not able to answer those questions. However, repetition is preserved. 06:42 to 07:22: The spectrum of normal comprehension, normal repetition, and difficulty in spontaneous motor speech initiation is a classical triad of transcortical motor aphasia seen in pre-SMA regions. In his case, it was transient and recovered over 3 weeks on follow-up. Radical surgeries with positive mapping often lead to transient neurological deficits, especially in the mapped functions. However, these are almost always reversible. This case highlights the rationale behind awake mapping in dominant SMA lesions and outlines the technical principles. Thank you. Outcome Post-operatively, this patient developed a syndrome of transcortical motor aphasia. Post-operative day 1 MR scans revealed expected residue posteriorly as seen on intra-operative NUS [Figure 2]. The patient was started on speech rehabilitation and discharged on POD6. Histopathology revealed IDH R132H mutated diffuse astrocytic tumor (WHO grade 3), and the patient was started on appropriate adjuvant treatment with radiotherapy (59.4 Gy/33#) and concurrent temozolamide. At post-operative 3-month follow-up, the patient had improved almost completely, with mild persistent residual impairment in speech initiation.Figure 2: Post-operative day 1 MRI scans; (a and b): Axial and coronal T2 sequences showing expected posteroinferior residual tumor. (c): Post-operative DTI segmentation showing the posterior extent of resection cavity (white arrow) attenuating the FAT (pink)Pearls and Pitfalls Awake mapping in SMA region tumors should be done meticulously and with appropriate and carefully selected tasks. The tasks should be individualized keeping in mind to map function, both cortically and sub-cortically. Table 1 describes the tests, interpretation of results, and the corresponding substrate tested.Table 1: Tests and tasks commonly used for awake mapping during resection of SMA region tumorsMapping at the sub-cortical region is more important. Negative motor and speech responses are usually encountered rostral to the primary motor responses. Preservation of these networks almost always ensures that the primary motor fibers have been preserved. MEPs to monitor the CSTs can be employed and provide corroboration and complementary information on the integrity of the primary motor networks (but not the negative motor pathways). Following radical functional resections (where mapping yields function at the boundaries of the resection), transient post-operative worsening is the norm. The same must be communicated to the patient prior to surgery. Complete recovery is almost universal. Discussion SMA was first described by Penfield in 1951 as a well-defined cortical area in the expanse of the mesial frontal lobe just anterior to the primary motor foot area, which on stimulation resulted in vocalization and negative motor responses.[4] Based on cyto-architecture, responses on functional imaging, or electrical stimulation, the region is divided into rostral pre-SMA or language SMA and dorsal SMA proper by an imaginary line through AC drawn perpendicular to the AC–PC line.[5] The language SMA/pre-SMA has connections with various networks subserving the dorsal language stream. The SMA proper is proposed to have a topographical representation of fibers from lower limbs, upper limbs, face, and language arranged posterior to anterior.[6] Fontaine et al.[7] in their study have corroborated the presence of SMA somatotopy and showed incremental speech and descending motor deficits with increasing posterior extent of resection in superior frontal gyrus lesions. While dealing with lesions in superior frontal gyrus, not only its relation to the cortical SMA region is important but also its subcortical connections should also be taken into consideration to avoid neuro-deficits that can hamper the patient's quality of life (QOL). One such important sub-cortical fiber network is the FAT (frontal aslant tract), which is an oblique bundle of white matter tract that connects SMA, pre-SMA, and part of SFG superomedially to the pars opercularis and pars triangularis inferolaterally. It has a demonstrated role in speech functions like initiation, modulation, sentence formation, and lexical decisions along with contribution to motor and executive functions, working memory, and social tasks and is thought to be an important substrate in development of speech deficits due to SMA complex insult.[8] Other sub-cortical networks in close proximity are frontostriatal tracts and SLF-II. The frontostriatal tract (FST) is a projection fiber of SMA complex and connects it to the caudate and striatum.[9] This tract is difficult to demonstrate on DTI and is believed to be involved in motor coordination and processing (especially contralateral). In the first description of the SMA syndrome by Laplane et al.,[3] it was typically thought to transiently affect motor function, resulting in a paucity of complex motor movements and volitional speech. But the paper also recorded persistent long-term deficits in bimanual coordination. Recent studies have unearthed more complex attributes of the SMA syndrome and have described cognitive and language deficits along with the pure motor domain of the syndrome.[10] SMA lesions are thought to produce more “speech related dysfunctions” (speech initiation, automatization, and monitoring) as well as task switching difficulties, while insult at the pre-SMA region is associated with development of “language related dysfunctions” like difficulty in prosody, lexical disambiguation, syntax, and context tracing.[11] Affection of left pre-SMA results in language dysfunction in all these domains and results in the syndrome of “transcortical motor aphasia”, which is classically defined as a syndrome of non-fluent verbal output with preserved repetition and comprehension, with or without other non-cardinal deficits like anomia, agrammatism, and paraphasia.[12] Post-operative SMA syndrome complex is traditionally believed to be transient in nature with partial or complete resolution seen in 80% patients in an average duration of 45 days, while persistent prolonged deficits mainly in speech are seen in approximately 20% patients.[13] However, not all reported studies document meticulously mapped sub-cortical SMA networks. When mapped systematically and preserved, the risk of long-term deficits is negligible.[14] The role of awake mapping for language and motor functions for SMA tumor resections has been a matter of debate. Critics suggest that awake mapping may result in early appearance of language or negative motor deficits that may compel the surgeon to resect less due to apprehension of creating a morbid deficit which otherwise is known to be grossly reversible, and these studies argue more in favor of resecting till functional motor boundaries attained by sub-cortical monitoring during resection under anesthesia.[15,16] Noteworthy in all these studies, post-operative detailed neuropsychological evaluation was not done, and thus, subtle deficits in movement kinematics/praxis, language, and cognition due to involvement of pre- SMA networks were not taken cognizance of. Whereas intra-operative deficits do herald a post-operative deficit, when these responses are elicited by meticulous DES using an appropriate task, they reliably provide a functional margin for the extent of resection. Deficits arising after such radical resections are often reversible as mentioned. On the other hand, when such deficits occur (as part of the post-operative SMA syndrome) in surgeries done under GA, it is difficult to predict the reversibility of the deficits. The residual deficits of pre-SMA injury, although not very overt, may affect patients' higher mental function and motor dexterity, which in case of professional individuals may hamper their ability to go back to work. In case of sub-total resections, neuroplasticity can permit functional reorganization of eloquent networks over time, permitting staged resections of tumors, especially lower-grade gliomas.[17] Conclusion Awake mapping should be considered using appropriate and customized testing paradigms during resection of dominant SMA gliomas. All anticipated deficits and their evolution post-operatively as well as short-term and long-term impacts on the patient's work should be discussed in detail upfront, and a decision on acceptance of deficit should be made beforehand. This “a la carte” approach can help decide resective intent pre-operatively, which can result in good patient cooperation intra-operatively and can help achieving maximal safe resection. Financial support and sponsorship Nil. Conflicts of interest There are no conflicts of interest.
One of the types of analysis of a literary text is linguistic poetic analysis, and in linguistics there are several conditions for this type of linguistic analysis. In other words, the following issues should be considered by the linguist researcher: to pay attention to how the author made a selection of language units in accordance with the literary genre of the fiction; to make an analysis of compliance with the norms inherent in the speech samples of the literary text; also to pay attention to the observance of the norms of person and time in the narrative form of speech in a single artistic text; to pay attention and analyze the compositional division of the analyzed artistic text; to give illustrative examples from the studied artistic text and pay attention to the fact that the elements of colloquial speech form a syntagma separated from the emerging patterns of lexical syntagmas in artistic texts, to show that they are able to exist and be in a literary language, since some elements of colloquial speech have potential; to analyze the elements of language that form the imagery of a literary text, as well as to prove that an artistic text enriches the vocabulary, since new words more often generate artistic texts, etc. And also to form an opinion about the individual style of the author.
With the technological benefits and challenges computer-mediated communication provides, interactants in social network service (SNS) communication are driven to use language creatively, overcoming the disadvantages and exploiting advantages. This creative language use leads to innovative language change that often extends beyond SNS environments. In this regard, the medium is not merely a restrictive but also a facilitative factor. Communicative acts are fundamentally bound by the interactants’ desire to express politeness, especially in face-threatening acts, well articulated in Brown and Levinson’s (1987) model. In recent research, however, the issues of the norms of politeness and impoliteness as well as those of appropriateness have been highlighted (Locher Watts 2005, Locher Bousfield 2008). Interactants employ not only mitigating strategies to alleviate face-threatening but also use impoliteness strategies, which are often disguised politeness. Drawing upon the data from a 26-million-word corpus of synchronous SNS communication, involving two or more participants, in 3,836 instances, developed by the National Institute of the Korean Language, this paper addresses how SNS interactants make use of diverse elements of language to show their polite and impolite stances in interpersonal negotiation. For instance, interactants use fragments, interjections, letter-based ideophones and emoticons, exaggerated punctuations for emotiveness, omission of regular punctuation marks, intentional violation of orthographic rules, prolific slang expressions, deviated spelling to create cuteness or intimacy, among numerous others. All these creative strategies lead to language change at lexical, grammatical and discourse levels.
“M. Marcel Proust has just published the third volume of his childhood memories,” wrote an exceptionally obtuse reviewer of Le Côté de Guermantes in 1920 (qtd. 130). That's one of the generic frames within which À la recherche du temps perdu has been read; other descriptions include “a psychological novel, a novel about time and memory, later a novel about art and aesthetic experience, a philosophical novel, a phenomenological one, and perhaps only later still a novel with a deeply anthropological and sociological bent, a novel interested in how culture happens, how language is a space in which culture happens, in which it is possible to watch culture happening over time, and to watch social change occur as culture happens” (125). The latter is of course the description closest to Michael Lucey's heart; his Proust is an ethnographer of the work done by language, and more generally a kind of wild sociologist who is deeply attentive to the playing out of social roles in conversation and in the idiosyncrasies of speech. The project of What Proust Heard is at once to analyze that narrative mode and to inculcate in the reader a novelistic form of attention to talk and to the social patterns that are revealed and enacted in talk.Two metadiscourses meet in this book. One is the series of reflections made by Proust's narrator on the conversations and the speech patterns of characters in the novel, including (by implication) those of the hero himself. The other is a set of theoretical languages elaborated by Mikhail Bakhtin, Erving Goffman, Pierre Bourdieu, and above all by the linguistic anthropologist Michael Silverstein.Let me start with the former. What the narrator notices and returns to again and again is a depth that underlies all talk (what Nathalie Sarraute calls the sous-conversation) (220). His interest is not in what is said but in how it is said and what that underlying subtext tells us about the speakers. Every act of speech carries with it the traces of a complex personal and interpersonal history, a linguistic habitus displaying the patterns of class, gender, and culture that are mobilized when characters speak. Everyday talk involves the attempt to decipher those traces and to ratify the social roles performed by speakers, as well as the social capital they claim and that is either granted or denied by their interlocutor; and much of the novel's comic force arises from its representation of the failed assumption of a shared habitus.Take, for example, a conversation centered on the Duc de Guermantes that Lucey analyzes at some length. The duke has expressed his regret that his nephew, Robert de Saint-Loup, has aligned himself with the supporters of Dreyfus: “With a name like ‘the Marquis de Saint-Loup,’” he remarks, “one isn't a Dreyfusard.” The narrator then appeals to one of two “laws of language” to explain the duke's use of the inappropriate phrase “with a name like” (“quand on s'appelle”). One of them “demands that we should express ourselves like others in our mental category and not of our caste”; the duke is speaking like a grocer. The other law is that from time to time there arise, as though by pure chance, “modes of expression that one hears in the same decade on the lips of people who have in no way concerted their efforts to use them” (qtd. 16). The first law, as Lucey paraphrases, “has to do with registers and how they are disseminated, and the second has to do, perhaps, with lexical innovation, borrowing, and diffusion” (17). The play of shifting registers continues in this conversation with interventions by an archivist and a historian: The former introduces a lexical novelty (the term “mentality” to describe a state of mind). The latter, “anxious to be part of the conversation,” points out that the word “mentality” occurs more frequently than the adjective “talentuous” (which the duke has just remarked on), citing as his authority the fact that “I'm on a committee at the Ministry of Education where I've heard it on several occasions, and also at my club, the Volney, and even at dinner at M. Émile Ollivier's.” To which the duke scathingly replies—“with false humility but with a vanity so deep-seated that his lips could not refrain from a smile”—that, since he doesn't have the honor of belonging to the Ministry of Education, nor of belonging to the Volney Club (“my only clubs are the Union and the Jockey—I don't believe you belong to the Jockey, monsieur?”), nor of having been invited to dine with M. Ollivier, he hasn't come across the word “mentality” (qtd. 20–21). Social caste is asserted, a social hierarchy reaffirmed.Although characters thus confirm their social roles by repeatedly performing them, their speech is not reducible to the expression of social position: the duke will, under certain circumstances, speak like a grocer. Much of the narrator's metadiscourse is directed to the slippery negotiations of position that take place in talk. Sexual codes are a particularly rich source of positional ambiguity: Charlus has to work out whether being called “one of us” by M. Verdurin means that his sexual proclivities (and thus, surprisingly, Verdurin's) have been revealed or that something more innocuous is intended, and the narrator is driven to anguish by Albertine's abruptly expressed desire to “me faire casser...,” which he reconstructs (“me faire casser le pot”) as referring to an obscene sexual act (158). Aesthetic codes similarly work both to shape a shared social space and to divide it through operations of distinction and exclusion: Elstir, Bergotte, and Vinteuil act as touchstones by which characters judge and are judged (Charlus signals reverence during a performance of the Vinteuil Septet, Mme. Verdurin performs absorption, and the narrator, anticipating Bourdieu, constructs and reconstructs the social field across which judgments of taste and the concomitant judgments of character are distributed).In a series of interludes between chapters Lucey extends Proust's narrator's fascination with the forms and uses of talk to other novelists who share that fascination: Honoré de Balzac, George Eliot, Virginia Woolf, Nathalie Sarraute, and Rachel Cusk. These interludes shift the focus from Proust to the description of a specific genre of the novel that culminates, paradoxically, in Cusk's tonally flat representations of talk which leave it entirely to the reader to make sense of motive and intention: her metadiscourse is present only as inference. We might wonder, though: Which novels would be excluded from this tradition? Which novelists are not particularly interested in the social dynamics of talk? And when Lucey speculates on how a reader would decipher motive and social patterning in a novel made up entirely of dialogue (Ivy Compton-Burnett comes to mind), he doesn't push this to think about how such deciphering might work in the limit case of drama and dramatic irony.The second metadiscourse elaborated in What Proust Heard is drawn from Bakhtin's account of speech genres (but not, unfortunately, except in passing, the early work of Bakhtin/Vološinov and Bakhtin/Medvedev); Goffman's account of the splitting of the author function between animator, author, and principal; Bourdieu's account of habitus, field, and the logic of practice; and Michael Silverstein's linguistic anthropology (but not, unfortunately, the social semiotics of Michael Halliday, which covers much of the same ground as Silverstein but more lucidly and with somewhat more linguistic complexity in its theorization of the interlocking determinations of speech registers). Here the key construct is the “social indexicality” of language, a concept that invites us to attend not to the denotational force of speech but to the social markers it carries and the social work it performs. Lucey's reading of Silverstein is grounded in a compelling critique of the limitations of speech act theory and of H. Paul Grice's “cooperative principle.” The tradition that stretches from J. L. Austin through Grice and John Searle understands language-in-use in ways that are instrumentalist and acontextual, oriented to the speaker's intention and to the truth-values carried by speech. As Goffman puts it, however, talk is less about giving information than about “giving shows” (98). For Silverstein, language has an indexical rather than an illocutionary force: it carries embedded information about role relationships and it projects “consequential social action”; its “indexical entailments” are “more various than normal construals of performativity allow for” (223–24). Whereas Grice's account of conversational implicatures expresses a kind of philosopher's fantasy about the use of talk for the rational and cooperative construction of a shared project, where participants are expected to speak transparently, economically, truthfully, and to the point, “neither Proust nor linguistic anthropology proceeds from the assumption of reciprocity, and so neither finds it normal that an easily or widely shared reference to a common repository of illocutionary possibilities or metapragmatic functions necessarily produces a uniform recognition of what transpires in this or that instance of language use” (32–33). To the contrary: what Proust takes from Dostoevsky is a thematics of mutual incomprehension, such that any conversation between, say, the narrator and Albertine is largely opaque to their respective “intentions,” and speakers are never fully the subjects or authors of their speech. Many of the most interesting and most subtle readings in the book are explorations of the tormented dynamic that holds the narrator and Albertine together and apart.The two metadiscourses elaborated in this book—that of the narrator, and a social-scientific discourse—are interrelated; but the form of their relationship is something of a problem. At times Proust (or the narrator) figures as a kind of precursor of social theory; at others that theory acts as a supplement, translating the narrator's analyses of talk into explicitly sociological terms. I'm not entirely convinced that that act of translation adds significant value, however, and I have a particular concern about Silverstein's concept of the social “indexicality” of language. The Peircean indexical sign operates by means of a direct existential or physical connection between the sign and its object: the connection may be causal, or it may be spatiotemporal, as in the case of deictic indices. The concept of social indexicality thus seems to indicate that role relationships can be read off from spoken text, with immediate legibility, and it points to actual relations of power and solidarity conveyed in talk rather than to relations that are projected but not necessarily accomplished: to discursive positions that don't simply or immediately reflect actual social positions (the duke speaking like a grocer). To put this differently, the logic of the concept of indexicality cuts short an analysis of the negotiation through talk of rhetorical positions, and the interpretive ploys that all such negotiation involves.One of the consequences of this logic is played out in Lucey's response to a reflection by Cusk on the instability of character in her novels. She tells her interviewer that “we're very used to a novel being carried by a self that we believe in, and we believe in it as a simulation, or a representation of us. We think that's what our experiences are like, and this is the form which that experience of being in a self is like, and I don't believe that. I don't think that's true. I think... that experience is much more lateral and oceanic” (258). To which Lucey replies that “of course, it is probably statistically more likely that certain kinds of people will share certain experiences than others, will be informed by certain kinds of experience than others, will talk in one way rather than another.... Cusk's novels constantly hover on the brink of this kind of self-reflexivity. Proust's narrator hovers on this same brink” (259).I don't want to make too much of this: Lucey's reading of Proust is fully attentive to the indeterminacies and instabilities of character and to the “distributive authorship” of speech (276). But one of the ways in which Proust is not doing the kind of norm-governed classificatory work that a sociologist like Bourdieu does has to do with his fascination with the dispersal of “character”: the atavism that finds us speaking the language of our parents and acquiring the racial features of our ancestors; the slippage of one character into another through the myriad transformations of desire and identity in this most fluid of novels. Proust may indeed have an ethnographic sensibility, but his commitment as a novelist is not only to the descriptive but also to the transformative and the Cratylic powers of language.
Comme d’autres pays francophones, la Belgique a connu une tradition puriste séculaire, ciblant ses anathèmes sur la variation topolectale. Le primat d’une norme exogène (le français « de Paris ») n’y a été remis en question qu’à la fin du xxe siècle. Aujourd’hui, la légitimité de certaines normes endogènes est reconnue, en particulier dans le domaine lexical. On présentera les grandes étapes de cette évolution dans les attitudes et les représentations des Belges francophones et le parti qui peut en être tiré pour une meilleure prise en compte de la variation topolectale dans l’enseignement du français.