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This article talks about the study of language levels in world linguistics, as well as the need to create a lexical basis of levels in the modern Uzbek literary language.
Cariani’s The Modal Future is a book about future language. At its heart is a challenge to the received symmetric picture of temporal language. Many think past tense and future auxiliaries are mirror images of each other: one simply has “later” where the other has “earlier.” The Modal Future aims to supplant this symmetric picture with an asymmetric one, where future thought and talk is modal, and explores issues in the pragmatics, epistemology, and cognition of future claims in the light of this asymmetric picture.Cariani motivates the asymmetric picture with a dilemma. “Will” appears to have properties characteristic of modal expressions. But existing modal accounts face a variety of extremely serious problems. Take the Peircean view, where “will φ” is true at w and t if and only if φ is true in all futures that are possible at w and t. Cariani shows this view makes a mess of our future credences. If I am about to toss a fair coin, what should my credence be that the following is true?(1) The coin will land heads.It is 0.5, of course. But the Peircean predicts it should be 0: I should be certain this universal claim has a counterexample. Cariani argues, convincingly in my view, none of the standard modal views ultimately do better.Cariani’s alternative, building on Cariani and Santorio 2018, is the selection semantics for “will.” This theory draws on the selection functions from Stalnaker’s theory of conditionals, which, given a world and a proposition, select the closest world where that proposition is true. On Cariani’s semantics, “will φ” is true at w just in case φ is true at the selected world with the same history as the actual world. Of course, this selected world just is the actual world, so, in simple unembedded contexts, “will φ” is simply equivalent to φ. (This equivalence is broken in various embedded contexts, such as conditionals, which add further information to input proposition for the selection function.) We get a nice account of the dilemma: “will” is indeed a modal, but its true modal nature is hidden in simple, unembedded claims.After sketching the basic idea, Cariani addresses important technical questions for the semantics. A particularly pressing question is how to secure the future orientation of “will” without disrupting the scope relations between “will” and negation. Cariani solves this issue by adapting Condoravdi 2001 account of future orientation in modals. This involves an event semantics, where verbs quantify over events and tenseless clauses are interpreted relative to worlds and intervals. In this framework, “will” effectively shifts the interval of evaluation: the embedded tenseless clause is evaluated relative to the interval starting at the time of utterance and continuing into the future indefinitely. This accounts for the future orientation of “will” without unwanted scope relations.From here, the book addresses a range of related questions, and the selection semantics becomes an important background assumption. One cluster of issues centers on assertion and the open future. Cariani, who is ultimately agnostic about openness, argues for a conditional claim: if the future is open, we should adopt a particular bivalent approach to openness.Cariani first argues against venerable, Aristotelian approach, where future claims have a third indeterminate truth value, when the future is open. This view faces a puzzle about assertion and the open future. The Aristotelian seems to predict no future contingents are assertable. Truth is a very plausible necessary condition on assertability. But many future contingents are assertable: I can for instance tell my friend that I will be arriving on the 1:30 train.Cariani endorses a bivalent indeterminist Thin Red Line view. On the Thin Red Line view, even when multiple futures are consistent with the present, one particular history has the privilege of being ours. On bivalent indeterminism about the future, future claims have classical truth values, even when they are not settled; it is simply indeterminate which particular classical value they have. So on Cariani’s Thin Red Line view, one history has the privilege of being the one we live in, but it is indeterminate which future is that thin red line is. Unlike other modal views, Cariani’s selection semantics is a good fit for this kind of view.This view has two interesting consequences. First, it is often indeterminate whether one has violated a norm of assertion. When I make my assertion about the train, it is indeterminate whether I have spoken truly, so it is also indeterminate whether I have violated the truth norm. Second, this status will eventually be resolved one way or the other: if the train did arrive on time, my assertion came true and so it is now determinate that the norm was not violated; if it did not arrive on time, it is now determinate the norm was violated. (I did wonder whether the Aristotelian will be satisfied: are future contingents not often determinately assertable at their time of utterance?)The book also deals with the topic of future epistemology and cognition, concluding with a discussion of a puzzle from Ninan 2022. Future claims seem to require weaker evidence to be assertable than past claims. For instance, a meteorologist may be able, on the basis of a century of past weather data, to assert:(2) It will snow in Boston in winter 2023.But once winter 2023 has come and gone, the meteorologist cannot use the same meteorological data to assert:(3) It snowed in Boston in winter 2023To assert (3), they require further direct evidence. This is puzzling—are they not saying the same thing on both occasions?Cariani says they are not. Cariani proposes a lexical account, where predicate meanings place restrictions on the speaker’s evidence. For instance, the semantic value of “died” in a context is treated as a partial function from a world w and individual x to truth values, one which only returns a truth value if the speaker in the context has evidence that settles whether x died in w. Cariani proposes these evidential requirements are removed in certain embeddings, particularly by modals. For instance, “must” clearly removes the evidential requirement: the meteorologist can say(4) It must have snowed in Boston in winter 2023.Given Cariani’s earlier claim that “will” is a modal, the lexical account predicts that (2) does not require the same direct evidence as (3).Every section of this book is deserving of extensive discussion, and, because of the book’s modular structure, one can engage with many of the main claims both individually and as a package. That being said, the claim that “will” is a modal undergirds very much of the discussion. I am convinced that, if “will” is a modal, Cariani’s semantics is the best currently on the market. The guiding idea of the selection semantics idea is ingenious, and the problems for its competitors are extremely serious. But I am not yet completely convinced of the antecedent: is “will” really a modal? I close with some remarks about the argument Cariani regards as the strongest, the argument from modal subordination.Roberts 1989 directed our attention to discourses like:(5) A wolf might come in. It would eat you first.While the second sentence lacks any overt conditional, the modal “would” is understood conditionally: I am saying that if a wolf came in, it would eat you first. This kind of reading prima facie appears to require a modal. Consider:(7)a. If John bought a book at all, it’ll be a mystery novel.b. He’s at home reading it right now.But Klecha 2014 notes that “will” also gives rise to modal subordination:(8) A wolf might come in. It will eat you first.So, the argument concludes, “will” is a modal.But on closer examination the data are messy. First, to my ear, the contrast is strongest in discourses with a mixture of tenses and/or auxiliaries. But a natural hypothesis here is that this mixture of tense and auxiliaries, rather than the absence of “will,” somehow blocks the subordination in (7b).Second, and relatedly, when we consider more uniform discourses, apparent subordination is easier. Cariani acknowledges apparent subordination is possible with the past. Consider:(9) If he went to the park yesterday, he had a sandwich. He enjoyed it.I note that future directed uses of the present also permit apparent subordination:(10) If it doesn’t rain on Monday, we go camping in Yellowstone that evening. We leave Yellowstone early on Tuesday morning.In (9), Cariani suggests that the second sentence is understood as being conjoined to the conditional consequent. But of course this kind of move would explain the original subordination data too.To Cariani’s mind, the most powerful data point is that “will” appears to go in for modal subordination across clause type. Consider:(11) Please do not throw paper towels in the toilet. It will clog.(12) Does Cinderella stay at the ball? The carriage will turn into a pumpkin!The conditional interpretations here cannot be due to conjunction. Furthermore, Cariani argues there are no parallel data when it comes to the past. Imperatives are necessarily future oriented, but past-oriented questions do seem to bear out a contrast, at least initially. Compare (12) to:(13) Did Cinderella stay at the ball? The carriage turned into a pumpkin!I think Cariani is right that subordination is not possible here. But a possible confounder here is that it is not always entirely straightforward to subordinate material from a past tense question, even when “will” is present. Consider:(14) Did you throw paper towels in the toilet? It will clog.I find the subordinated reading harder to access here than in (11), maybe not as crashingly bad as (13), but not as effortless as (11). A final data point is that it does seem possible to get modal subordination across clauses with the future directed present:(15) If Cinderella doesn’t leave before midnight, her carriage turns into a pumpkin. Do the footmen turn back into mice?So I am not sure modal subordination is a straightforward diagnostic of modality. It still could well be that the best account requires “will” to be a modal. To decide the issue, I suspect we will need some sustained attempt to develop a nonmodal alternative. (An alternative starting point: perhaps rather than reinterpreting the apparently subordinated claims, we simply add them to a derived context containing extra suppositions.)However this turns out, The Modal Future does extremely important work in articulating a significant and novel picture of our thought and talk about the future. Cariani covers an impressive amount of ground, proposing a range of interesting and novel views in a range of debates, and the discussion is consistently of very high quality. It is a must read for anyone working in these areas.
The article analyzes the peculiarities of the use of uppercase in the current spelling of the mo dern Ukrainian literary language. Аuthor compared the new rules with the previous editions of the Ukrainian spelling code of 1994 (Ukrainian spelling. 4th edition, corrected and supplemented. Kyiv, 1994. §§ 34—40) and 1999 (Ukrainian spelling. Project of the newest edition / Edited by V.V. Nimchuk. Kyiv, 1999. §§ 37—47). It should be stressed (emphasized) that this problem did not previously and does not cause significant discussions among Ukrainian linguists. A mention should be made in the current spelling, compared to the pre vious editions, the corresponding rules are developed in more detail. Proposals for supplemen ting / clarifying the rules for the use of uppercase / lowercase letters with new recommendations are outlined. The author clarified the wording of some points and notes, the spelling of: 1) compound Arabic anthroponyms with the components ibn and bint; 2) full official titles of the highest church officials; 3) official compound names of authorities, institutions and organizations, societies and associations; and also added new examples: 1) illustrative material; 2) a list of graphic abbreviations, etc. To draw the conclusion, one can say that the “uppercase” section in the current spelling is structured in terms of content and clear in terms of linguistic design in accordance with modern lexical and grammatical norms. Keywords: uppercase, proper names, small letter, toponyms, Ukrainian spelling.
The article reveals the general requirements for the qualification papers of future Mathematics teachers in the context of observing linguistic and stylistic norms of the scientific style, forming the language culture of a modern teacher. The social and communicative importance of the influence on the development of the teachers’ mathematical and scientific language has been analyzed. The peculiarities of the scientific language and the main flaws of its written presentation – the scientific style text – in the qualification papers of Mathematics teachers, who obtain the second educational level, have been revealed. Considerable attention has been paid to the formation of mathematical texts, in particular to issues of modern mathematical terminology. Typical linguistic and stylistic mistakes of authors, which they make when writing, editing and translating mathematical texts, have been analyzed. These mistakes to the specifics of scientific technical terminology, lexical and stylistic features of the style of scientific language have been related. Examples of the most frequently used lexical constructions and stable inflections in mathematical texts have been given. Recommendations on avoiding mistakes when constructing a text in a scientific style have been given. Selecting appropriate Ukrainian equivalents of commonly used lexemes of the Russian language, using established word combinations, and observing the grammatical norms of the literary language have been provided.
The article is devoted to the study of the peculiarities of the application of court precedent in the civil process of Ukraine. The general theoretical concept of judicial precedent is considered on the basis of legal doctrines of domestic and foreign scientists. The author's interpretation of this lexical term and its main features is formed. The article contains an analysis of the definition of judicial precedent in the norms of legislation - the Civil Procedure Code of Ukraine. The importance of amending the legislation by supplementing the norm of Article 13 of the Law of Ukraine "On the Judicial System and the Status of Judges", Article 10 of the Civil Procedure Code of Ukraine, in which judicial precedent will be understood as a source of law, is emphasized. The authors of the article analyzed the use of court precedents in disputed court cases, cassation appeals. It has been studied that the positions indicated and published in the legal acts of the highest instance court in Ukraine—the Supreme Court—can be applied by the courts of the first and appellate instances. It was noted that it is important to adopt a separate article of the Civil Code of Ukraine, on the basis of which an algorithm will be developed for the Supreme Court to cancel the decisions of the courts of first instance and appeal due to the lack of previous practice of the Supreme Court in similar legal relations. Special emphasis was given to the analysis of the Supreme Court Decision in case № 711/17/19, which contains the arguments of the Supreme Court regarding the practical aspects of the annulment of the decisions of the lower court levels due to the lack of analysis and references to similar court cases formed earlier.
We study semantic construal in grammatical constructions using large language models. First, we project contextual word embeddings into three interpretable semantic spaces, each defined by a different set of psycholinguistic feature norms. We validate these interpretable spaces and then use them to automatically derive semantic characterizations of lexical items in two grammatical constructions: nouns in subject or object position within the same sentence, and the AANN construction (e.g., ‘a beautiful three days’). We show that a word in subject position is interpreted as more agentive than the very same word in object position, and that the nouns in the AANN construction are interpreted as more measurement-like than when in the canonical alternation. Our method can probe the distributional meaning of syntactic constructions at a templatic level, abstracted away from specific lexemes.
Key Message: Awake mapping should be considered using appropriate and customized testing paradigms during resection of dominant SMA gliomas. The frontal lobe (FL) is the most common site of occurrence of adult diffuse gliomas.[1] On the lateral surface, it broadly consists of the primary motor area (M1), the premotor region (dorsal and ventral), and the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The dorsal premotor cortex is located in the superior and middle frontal gyri. Histologically, the agranular area located in the medial frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor area (M1) is identified as the supplementary motor area (SMA), which is further divided into SMA proper and pre-SMA. These areas are involved in planning and smooth execution of complex motor functions and via relays from the dorsal language stream modulate speech generation and phonological processing,[2] respectively. Lesions involving the SFG pose a specific challenge due to partial or complete involvement of pre-SMA and SMA regions as well as the subcortical networks. Though widely thought to be reversible, the classical SMA syndrome, as originally described by Laplane, clearly described persistent deficits in motor dexterity and bimanual complex movements, besides speech initiation.[3] If these functions are to be preserved, awake mapping of motor cognition and speech is mandatory. Objective In this article, we demonstrate the technique of resecting a dominant superior frontal gyrus tumor involving the pre-SMA and SMA region under awake conditions with DES emphasizing the need to consider awake mapping to prevent prolonged/permanent language and motor deficits. Clinical Presentation A 40-year-old male, right-handed engineer came with a history of two episodes of generalized tonic clonic seizures approximately 2 months back, which was controlled by a single antiepileptic agent with no breakthrough seizures. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain [Figure 1] showed a T2 hyperintense, T1 isointense, non-contrast enhancing, diffuse infiltrative intra-axial mass involving the left superior frontal gyrus and the dominant SMA. Further evaluation with functional MRI (fMRI) showed BOLD signal activation on covert speech task abutting the posteroinferior margin of the tumor representing vPMC (ventral premotor cortex) and DTI (diffusion tensor imaging) showing frontal aslant tract (FAT) and corticospinal tract (CST) abutting the posterior surface of the tumor [Figure 1].Figure 1: Pre-operative multi-planar MRI scans; T2 WI (a): axial section, (b): coronal section, and (c): sagittal section showing a diffuse infiltrative heterogeneously hyperintense lesion in left superior frontal gyrus. (d): No post-gadolinium enhancement. (e): fMRI showing BOLD signal activation of vPMC abutting the posterior border of tumor. (f): 3D-segmented DTI showing the fronto-aslant tract FAT (Pink) and CST (Blue) abutting the posterior border of tumorSurgery: Left frontoparietal awake craniotomy and resection of superior frontal gyrus glioma under intra-operative neuromonitoring and navigated ultrasound guidance. Equipment used: Navigated ultrasound system: Brainlab KICK navigation with ultrasound navigation software (BRAINLAB AG, Munich, Germany) coupled with a high-end cranial ultrasound machine (bk5000®; BK Medical, Denmark) using an N13C5 navigated curvilinear probe. Mapping and monitoring: NimEclipse (version 4.2.422) (Medtronics Inc., Minneapolis. MN, USA) with a bipolar 50-Hz cortical stimulator, a monopolar stimulator (train-of-five pulses), and cortical strip motor evoked potentials (MEPs). Anesthesia: Scalp block and initial sedation (dexmedetomidine) with laryngeal mask airway (LMA). Position: Right lateral, neck neutral, head fixed on the Mayfield three pin fixation system, and pressure points well padded. Incision: Left fronto-parieto-temporal question mark incision. Steps of Surgery Comfortable lateral position on a horse shoe Starting sedation and LMA insertion Pin site block followed by placement of head pins Navigation registration and marking incision Complete local scalp block followed by painting and draping (this is done after the navigation registration to avoid inaccuracies in surface matching that may arise when the anesthetic is infiltrated in the scalp) Frontotemporal craniotomy (wide exposure) Pre-durotomy 3D navigated intra-operative ultrasound (3D NUS) to delineate the tumor extent Awakening the patient and removing LMA at durotomy. 10–20 min for the patient to be fully cooperative for neuropsychological tests Cortical mapping with DES using specific tests (number counting, spontaneous motor twitches and active motor task, picture naming) to identify the functional boundaries Circumferential pial coagulation and subpial dissection of tumor bearing gyrus Subcortical mapping to identify and preserve the white matter networks of the SMA (tests as above) Completion of resection and enmass removal of the specimen Resection control 3DNUS to confirm the resection status. Video Link https://youtu.be/PJWljVA3msU QR Code: Video Timeline With Audio Transcript 00:00 to 00:19: In this video, we would like to describe the principles of surgery as well as the technical aspects of awake craniotomy and mapping for a diffuse low-grade glioma of the dominant superior frontal gyrus located close to the premotor cortex and underlying subcortical networks, emphasizing the role of awake mapping and monitoring. 00:20 to 00:55: This was a young engineer, right-handed, who presented with seizures and no neurological deficits, and on neurocognitive assessment, he only had mild semantic fluency affected. MRI multi-planar T1, T2 images showed a non-enhancing T2 hyper-intense lesion in the left superior frontal gyrus involving the SMA region. Medially, the tumor involved cingulum reaching up to and indenting the corpus callosum, there was negligible contrast enhancement, suggestive of a diffuse lower-grade glioma, probably IDH mutant. 00:56 to 01:27: It is important to understand that on the dominant side, besides motor integration, the SMA region is also involved and important for speech initiation. Besides cortical networks, the subcortical substrates at risk include the cingulum inferomedially, callosal fibers and the frontal aslant posteroinferiorly along with the corticospinal tract, and the SLF-arcuate terminations in the middle frontal gyrus laterally. The IFOF itself is relatively far away. 01:28 to 02:15: This patient was taken up for the awake craniotomy and asleep–awake technique. Tumor extent is evident in the superior frontal gyrus outline. Cortical mapping commenced with identifying the primary motor area using monopolar mapping. Then bipolar stimulation was used for establishing the threshold for further mapping. First, anarthia was elicited (not shown here), and using the same threshold of 2 milliamps, the negative motor phenomenon of stoppage of movement of the upper limb was mapped just posterior to the tumor boundary. At the same threshold with picture naming, there was speech delay seen at the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which is the termination of the IFOF. Thus, the functional cortical margins were outlined. 02:16 to 03:06: Once done, subpial circumferential dissection was commenced of the entire tumor-bearing gyrus, simultaneously monitoring the patient for motor and speech functions. General principles of subpial dissection ensure a complete gyral resection. The controlled ultrasonic aspirator is a very useful tool to prevent pial injury. At the white matter level, functional mapping is essential. In this case, associative motor speech areas of the pre-SMA fronto-aslant fibers and the motor execution networks, the frontostriatal fibers, were encountered on bipolar mapping, marking the limits of subcortical resection posteriorly and laterally, where a thin layer of tumor was left behind to avoid permanent deficits in dexterity and motor movement. 03:07 to 04:35: Circumferential resection was carried out all around with constant monitoring of the patient as described earlier. Medially, the superior frontal gyrus and the anterior cingulate were resected subpially, carefully preserving the distal branches of the anterior cerebral artery complex. In the awake patient, sometimes, this may elicit pain, and therefore, this step can be optionally done once the patient is put asleep at the end of surgery. En-block removal is completed, leaving a small nubbin behind at the base, overlying the eloquent white matter. Then this is gradually removed layer by layer using an ultrasonic aspirator, all the time constantly monitoring the patient. Resection was confirmed using intra-operative ultrasound. The positively mapped subcortical regions were depicted in the cavity here. Proximity of these fibers to the tumor edge reinforced the need to map them under awake conditions. The summary of the mapped regions is diagrammatically represented here. 04:36 to 04:54: Post-operative MRI confirms a near total resection with a thin sliver of tumor posteriorly where the negative motor networks are encountered. Preservation of the networks is confirmed on the post-operative tractography. 04:56 to 06:41: Post-operatively, this patient had no motor deficits; speech and comprehension were intact. However, difficulty in initiation of spontaneous speech and perseveration was noted. Reading and writing were intact. There was perseveration noted and difficulty in initiation of speech. He is not able to answer those questions. However, repetition is preserved. 06:42 to 07:22: The spectrum of normal comprehension, normal repetition, and difficulty in spontaneous motor speech initiation is a classical triad of transcortical motor aphasia seen in pre-SMA regions. In his case, it was transient and recovered over 3 weeks on follow-up. Radical surgeries with positive mapping often lead to transient neurological deficits, especially in the mapped functions. However, these are almost always reversible. This case highlights the rationale behind awake mapping in dominant SMA lesions and outlines the technical principles. Thank you. Outcome Post-operatively, this patient developed a syndrome of transcortical motor aphasia. Post-operative day 1 MR scans revealed expected residue posteriorly as seen on intra-operative NUS [Figure 2]. The patient was started on speech rehabilitation and discharged on POD6. Histopathology revealed IDH R132H mutated diffuse astrocytic tumor (WHO grade 3), and the patient was started on appropriate adjuvant treatment with radiotherapy (59.4 Gy/33#) and concurrent temozolamide. At post-operative 3-month follow-up, the patient had improved almost completely, with mild persistent residual impairment in speech initiation.Figure 2: Post-operative day 1 MRI scans; (a and b): Axial and coronal T2 sequences showing expected posteroinferior residual tumor. (c): Post-operative DTI segmentation showing the posterior extent of resection cavity (white arrow) attenuating the FAT (pink)Pearls and Pitfalls Awake mapping in SMA region tumors should be done meticulously and with appropriate and carefully selected tasks. The tasks should be individualized keeping in mind to map function, both cortically and sub-cortically. Table 1 describes the tests, interpretation of results, and the corresponding substrate tested.Table 1: Tests and tasks commonly used for awake mapping during resection of SMA region tumorsMapping at the sub-cortical region is more important. Negative motor and speech responses are usually encountered rostral to the primary motor responses. Preservation of these networks almost always ensures that the primary motor fibers have been preserved. MEPs to monitor the CSTs can be employed and provide corroboration and complementary information on the integrity of the primary motor networks (but not the negative motor pathways). Following radical functional resections (where mapping yields function at the boundaries of the resection), transient post-operative worsening is the norm. The same must be communicated to the patient prior to surgery. Complete recovery is almost universal. Discussion SMA was first described by Penfield in 1951 as a well-defined cortical area in the expanse of the mesial frontal lobe just anterior to the primary motor foot area, which on stimulation resulted in vocalization and negative motor responses.[4] Based on cyto-architecture, responses on functional imaging, or electrical stimulation, the region is divided into rostral pre-SMA or language SMA and dorsal SMA proper by an imaginary line through AC drawn perpendicular to the AC–PC line.[5] The language SMA/pre-SMA has connections with various networks subserving the dorsal language stream. The SMA proper is proposed to have a topographical representation of fibers from lower limbs, upper limbs, face, and language arranged posterior to anterior.[6] Fontaine et al.[7] in their study have corroborated the presence of SMA somatotopy and showed incremental speech and descending motor deficits with increasing posterior extent of resection in superior frontal gyrus lesions. While dealing with lesions in superior frontal gyrus, not only its relation to the cortical SMA region is important but also its subcortical connections should also be taken into consideration to avoid neuro-deficits that can hamper the patient's quality of life (QOL). One such important sub-cortical fiber network is the FAT (frontal aslant tract), which is an oblique bundle of white matter tract that connects SMA, pre-SMA, and part of SFG superomedially to the pars opercularis and pars triangularis inferolaterally. It has a demonstrated role in speech functions like initiation, modulation, sentence formation, and lexical decisions along with contribution to motor and executive functions, working memory, and social tasks and is thought to be an important substrate in development of speech deficits due to SMA complex insult.[8] Other sub-cortical networks in close proximity are frontostriatal tracts and SLF-II. The frontostriatal tract (FST) is a projection fiber of SMA complex and connects it to the caudate and striatum.[9] This tract is difficult to demonstrate on DTI and is believed to be involved in motor coordination and processing (especially contralateral). In the first description of the SMA syndrome by Laplane et al.,[3] it was typically thought to transiently affect motor function, resulting in a paucity of complex motor movements and volitional speech. But the paper also recorded persistent long-term deficits in bimanual coordination. Recent studies have unearthed more complex attributes of the SMA syndrome and have described cognitive and language deficits along with the pure motor domain of the syndrome.[10] SMA lesions are thought to produce more “speech related dysfunctions” (speech initiation, automatization, and monitoring) as well as task switching difficulties, while insult at the pre-SMA region is associated with development of “language related dysfunctions” like difficulty in prosody, lexical disambiguation, syntax, and context tracing.[11] Affection of left pre-SMA results in language dysfunction in all these domains and results in the syndrome of “transcortical motor aphasia”, which is classically defined as a syndrome of non-fluent verbal output with preserved repetition and comprehension, with or without other non-cardinal deficits like anomia, agrammatism, and paraphasia.[12] Post-operative SMA syndrome complex is traditionally believed to be transient in nature with partial or complete resolution seen in 80% patients in an average duration of 45 days, while persistent prolonged deficits mainly in speech are seen in approximately 20% patients.[13] However, not all reported studies document meticulously mapped sub-cortical SMA networks. When mapped systematically and preserved, the risk of long-term deficits is negligible.[14] The role of awake mapping for language and motor functions for SMA tumor resections has been a matter of debate. Critics suggest that awake mapping may result in early appearance of language or negative motor deficits that may compel the surgeon to resect less due to apprehension of creating a morbid deficit which otherwise is known to be grossly reversible, and these studies argue more in favor of resecting till functional motor boundaries attained by sub-cortical monitoring during resection under anesthesia.[15,16] Noteworthy in all these studies, post-operative detailed neuropsychological evaluation was not done, and thus, subtle deficits in movement kinematics/praxis, language, and cognition due to involvement of pre- SMA networks were not taken cognizance of. Whereas intra-operative deficits do herald a post-operative deficit, when these responses are elicited by meticulous DES using an appropriate task, they reliably provide a functional margin for the extent of resection. Deficits arising after such radical resections are often reversible as mentioned. On the other hand, when such deficits occur (as part of the post-operative SMA syndrome) in surgeries done under GA, it is difficult to predict the reversibility of the deficits. The residual deficits of pre-SMA injury, although not very overt, may affect patients' higher mental function and motor dexterity, which in case of professional individuals may hamper their ability to go back to work. In case of sub-total resections, neuroplasticity can permit functional reorganization of eloquent networks over time, permitting staged resections of tumors, especially lower-grade gliomas.[17] Conclusion Awake mapping should be considered using appropriate and customized testing paradigms during resection of dominant SMA gliomas. All anticipated deficits and their evolution post-operatively as well as short-term and long-term impacts on the patient's work should be discussed in detail upfront, and a decision on acceptance of deficit should be made beforehand. This “a la carte” approach can help decide resective intent pre-operatively, which can result in good patient cooperation intra-operatively and can help achieving maximal safe resection. Financial support and sponsorship Nil. Conflicts of interest There are no conflicts of interest.
Comme d’autres pays francophones, la Belgique a connu une tradition puriste séculaire, ciblant ses anathèmes sur la variation topolectale. Le primat d’une norme exogène (le français « de Paris ») n’y a été remis en question qu’à la fin du xxe siècle. Aujourd’hui, la légitimité de certaines normes endogènes est reconnue, en particulier dans le domaine lexical. On présentera les grandes étapes de cette évolution dans les attitudes et les représentations des Belges francophones et le parti qui peut en être tiré pour une meilleure prise en compte de la variation topolectale dans l’enseignement du français.
Nigerian hip-hop artists utilize linguistic techniques to navigate cultural and societal boundaries. While past research on Nigerian hip-hop has delved into its use of English variations, portrayal of women, and the framing of identities and beliefs, there has been limited exploration of the language’s role in depicting internet fraud. This study adopts an applied linguistic lens and an interdisciplinary methodology to analyze the portrayal of internet fraud in tracks by six renowned Nigerian hip-hop artists: Okafor Golden Chinedu (X Busta), Mikel Mint (Jupitar), Patrick Nnaemeka Okorie (Patoranking), Babatunde Olusegun Adewale (Modenine), Abolore Adegbola Akande (9ice), and Olumide Edwards Adegbulu (Olu Maintain). Drawing from the principles of Moral Disengagement and Lexical Semantics, the research elucidates how these artists linguistically navigate societal norms when addressing theme of internet fraud.
Reading is a complex process involving multiple stages. An impairment in any of these stages may cause distinct types of reading deficits- distinct types of dyslexia. We describe the Malabi, a screener to identify deficits in various orthographic, lexical, and sublexical components of the reading process in French. The Malabi utilizes stimuli that are sensitive to different forms of dyslexia, including "attentional dyslexia", as it is traditionally refered to, characterized by letter-to-word binding impairments leading to letter migrations between words (e.g., "bar cat" misread as "bat car"), and "letter-position dyslexia", resulting in letter transpositions within words (e.g., "destiny" misread as "density"). After collecting reading error norms from 138 French middle-school students, we analyzed error types of 16 students with developmental dyslexia. We identified three selective cases of attentional dyslexia and one case of letter-position dyslexia. Further tests confirmed our diagnosis and demonstrate, for the first time, how these dyslexias are manifested in French. These results underscore the significance of recognizing and discussing the existence of multiple dyslexias, both in research contexts when selecting participants for dyslexia studies, and in practical settings where educators and practitioners work with students to develop personalized support. The test and supporting materials are available on Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/3pgzb/).
Bloom (1981) argued that English has a salient counterfactual marker--the subjunctive to express hypothetical and implicational meanings whereas Chinese has no distinct lexical, grammatical or intonational device to signal entry into the counterfactual realm. He suggested that the lack of a linguistic means to mark counterfactuality in Chinese influences the cognitive behavior of speakers of Chinese: they are less likely to reason counterfactually. To test his hypothesis, he presented stories featured by counterfactuality to both English and Chinese speakers and compared their responses to counterfactual questions. The overall result of his experiment was that his American English subjects scored significantly higher than Chinese subjects. Bloom interpreted his findings as evidence for the weak form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: language influences thought and linguistic differences entail corresponding cognitive differences. This dissertation intends to demonstrate, through a survey of literature and interviewing of native Chinese informants, that although Chinese does not have a syntactic means equivalent to the subjunctive in English to mark counterfactuality, it does have lexical devices to express hypothetical and implicational meanings. In addition, there are contextualization cues such as stress, pitch and intonation that make counterfactuality explicit. The fact that some Chinese were reluctant to respond to Bloom's hypothetical questions as he had expected may not be a reflection of differences in cognitive processes, but rather a reflection of differences in cultural values. Data collected for this dissertation also indicate that differences in linguistic categorization are not necessarily paralleled by cognitive differences. The educational implication of this dissertation is: to be a competent speaker in any language it is not sufficient only to learn linguistic forms. It is essential to learn the culture and social norms of a particular society and the use of language in contexts: topic, setting and participants in order to communicate appropriately and effectively.
The article discusses the grammatical competence in the English language of future teachers in the undergraduate program as a component of effective foreign language teaching in the form of ability to correctly apply the morphological, syntactic and lexical norms of the English language in solving practical problems. Taking into account the teaching of English as a pedagogical specialty, it is necessary to take into account the communicative and pedagogical components of professional competence. Based on theoretical provisions in the form of an analysis of pedagogical conditions of the organization of education, the current study views the specifics of improving morphological grammatical skills in the form of teaching tense forms of English verbs on the material of authentic texts from classical literature. As part of the study, as part of a pedagogical experiment, according to the results in the experimental group, difficulties in mastering the tense forms of verbs were identified. Increasing the level of foreign language communicative competence will contribute to the improvement of theoretical and linguistic knowledge, to the formation of practical skills in the form of teaching the norms of the literary language.
The article reveals the types of stylistic errors made when translating a literary fairy tale from Russian into the Yakut language; examples are given from the translated text made by the Yakut translator V. S. Fedorov – Sameer Basylai in 1983. As the source text for the comparison, we used Russian translations made by the Hansen spouses of the fairy-tales by famous Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen: “Wild Swans”, “Flint”, “Steady Tin Soldier”, “Piggy Bank”, “Ugly Duckling”, “Snow Queen”, “Nightingale”, “Shepherd Girl and Chimney Sweep”, “Old House”, “Magic Hill”, “Flying Chest”, and “Thumbelina”. A comparative and descriptive method was used with the use of the classification of stylistic errors made in the Yakut translation. The methodological basis of this study was the work of Russian researchers I. B. Golub and G. Y. Solganika in the field of stylistics and culture of speech of the Russian language, as well as educational publications in the Yakut language by T. I. Petrova, A. A. Vasilyeva, and N. A. Efremova. The authors gave an objective assessment of the quality of the translation of the text in the Yakut language, based on the analysis, the following types of stylistic errors in the translated text were identified: 1) at the lexical level (confusion in the meaning of the word, redundancy, insufficiency of the word, violation of the usual and literary norms, distortion of phraseological units, interspersed with clericalisms); 2) at the grammatical level (adding inappropriate affixes); 3) at the syntactic level (violation of the order of words in a sentence).
The purpose of the article is to highlight the question of philological and logical interpretation of legal norms. The novelty of the article is to show how the philological and logical interpretation of legal norms applied in practice. Within the framework of philological (grammatical) interpretation are distinguished two main types of analysis (analysis), which significantly affect the process of assessing the content of legal norms. The first type of analysis involves a holistic assessment of the semantic load of a word, an analysis of a word as a lexical unit. Certain rules (plain meaning rule; legal definition) developed in jurisprudence and used during lexical analysis are singled out. The specified rules are very similar in orientation. The first establishes that it doesn't give the same meaning to different terms without sufficient grounds. Second, identical terms within the same legal act no give different meanings without sufficient grounds. Within the framework of linguistic-logical interpretation, recommended to pay attention to the communication context that arises when using language. Logical interpretation consists in clarifying the content of a legal norm by comparing its content with other norms in the field of law. It was established that a number of signs of a logical method of interpretation include the following: a set of logical methods of interpretation; a means of deciphering the meaning of the legal norm; purposeful mental activity. Conclusions. Linguistic (grammatical, morphological, textual) and logical methods of interpretation are the main ones, while others are a natural addition to them. However, we adhere to the view that there is no division into basic and additional ways of interpreting legal norms. Each is an independent way of interpretation. However, in order to clarify the content and meaning of a legal norm, it is not always necessary to apply all the above methods of interpretation. Sometimes it is enough to limit yourself to only a few of them. This fact does not yet give grounds to consider other methods of interpretation as additional or to ignore them. Since, most often, the very use of one of them can fundamentally change the opinion of the interpreter and help in clarifying the will of the legislator.
The article examines the issue of studying the practical stylistics of the Ukrainian language as an educational discipline in the training of media professionals, reveals the problem of improving the stylistic skills of students-journalists in the process of mastering the course as an important factor in professional training, substantiates the need to work on the stylistic skill of speech in the context of improving the skills of a journalist.It is marked that the practical stylistics of the Ukrainian language plays an important role in the training of future mass media workers as a means of forming a highly educated linguistic personality of a modern journalist.It is noted that the educational discipline "Practical stylistics of the Ukrainian language" has a significant communicative potential, and its mastering contributes to the fullest possible and perfect use of linguistic means by future journalists.The study of this educational component makes it possible to learn successfully the norms of the modern Ukrainian literary language, to develop the skills of creating and editing media texts of various genres and stylistics.It is emphasized that during the study of the educational component "Practical Stylistics of the Ukrainian Language" the students of higher education form competent, expressive and clear speech, acquire skills in stylistic text editing and the use of oral and written forms of all functional styles, observing orthographic, orthoepic, lexical-grammatical, punctuation norms, thanks to which communication skills are improved.It is concluded that the practical stylistics of the Ukrainian language has significant communicative opportunities, which contributes to the accurate, appropriate and balanced use of linguistic means in the practice of future journalists.
Chapter 9 Romancel anguages and linguistic typology Romancel anguages and linguisticsThis chapter is dedicated to Coseriu'sw ork on individual issuesi np articularl anguages as well as to his conception of linguistic typology.A sw ew ill see, it is surprising that thetwo fields are connected by acommon principle: historicity.Coseriu'swork on the Romance languagestraces their history or describes, explainsand systematises historical facts that can be found in different languages.The historical evolution and the synchronic view on systems are but two sides of the same coin, and thes ynchronic projection is alwayss implyap articular view on historicity.It includes,a sw eh aves een in chapter 4, all levels of synchronic analysis (see also Albrecht 2021): the norm as well as the system, and finallythe language type (section 9.2).Coseriu was never a "fieldworker" in the classical sense.He was of rural origins, but even his work on dialectology and linguistic geographyi st heoretical rather than empirical.However,i tw ould be too simplistic to consider him an "armchair linguist" in thesense of this classical and reductive binarism.His insistenceonthe individuality of particular languagesnot onlyderivedfrom his affinity for German idealistic philosophy,b ut also -in accordancew ith German idealistic philosophers -from his own individual knowledge of manyl anguagesa nd his pleasure of speaking and readingt hem.Coseriu was not onlyi nterested in structures and grammars,heenjoyed discovering languages, practicing them, and living within them: theR omance languagesa sw ell as the classic languagesL atin and Greek, the Slavic languages, German, English and even Japanese.He was an admirer of literature and considered it to be worth learning alanguage just to be able to read its poetry in the original version.When he arrivedatthe University of Rome, he tried to profit as much as possible from the wide rage of language courses available.D uring his Italian and earlyU ruguayany ears, he translated ag reat deal, doing so from various languages(Romanian, Slavic languages, German, amongothers) also into languagest hat weren ot his mother tongue, Italiana nd Spanish (which in fact he considered to be his second and third mother tongues).As alanguagelearner,hewas an interested observer of language phenomena, of language structures as well as of idiosyncratic constructions,p hraseologisms and lexical particularities.He not onlyp ublished severals tudieso np articular linguistic phenomena mainlyfrom Romance languages, but also dedicated asignificant amount of his teachingt oi ssues in particular languages, often doing so in thev ery lan-
The article reveals the meaning of the concept of "sustainability" as one of the components of speech culture. The importance of cultural ecological speech and the correct use of lexical norms is understood. The application of a complex research methodology, the basis of which is statistical analysis, elements of descriptive and structural methods, which is due to the richness of the material involved in the research, which is designed to serve to achieve a deeper disclosure of the topic, contributed to the clarification of how words and actions affect the work of the brain and the physiological state people, how harmful an aggressive environment and toxic, negatively colored words are for the brain. The most used words and expressions with a negative meaning by today's youth became the empirical material of the study. Their meaning and origin, appropriateness of use in communication is clarified. The main principles of avoiding destructive vocabulary in speech are outlined.
Del developed norms of behavioural data from two reading tasks (i.e., word accentuation and pseudoword reading) in adult Spanish speaking population in order to use them as estimates of premorbid intelligence quotient (PIQ) in brain injured, psychopathological, or cognitively impaired populations (Del Pino, R., Peña, J., Ibarretxe-Bilbao, N., Schretlen, D. J., & Ojeda, N. (2018). Demographically calibrated norms for two premorbid intelligence measures: The Word Accentuation Test and Pseudo-Words reading subtest. Frontiers in Psychology,9).In this commentary we discuss the adequacy to employ pseudoword reading (PWR) performance in Spanish as an estimator of PIQ. Current PWR level and scores on other reading tasks (e.g., irregular words reading) have been proposed as valid measures to estimate PIQ on the premiss that they correlate with IQ and show relative resistance to cognitive impairment derived from brain injury or illness. However, Del do not provide any direct evidence of the relationship between PWR in Spanish and PIQ. In what follows, we provide arguments that challenge the use of PWR performance in Spanish as an estimator of PIQ.First, Del claimed that "reading ability becomes, with practice, an automatic ability that is highly resistant to cognitive impairment" (p. 2), citing several studies in support.However, none of cited investigations addressed the PWR task. Del Ser et al. (1997) examined the ability of Spanish speakers to stress the correct syllable in a series of unfamiliar words. Harman-Smith et al. (2013) showed that performance in a reading task of irregular English words is a valid estimation of PIQ in patients with brain injury. Hessler et al. (2013) investigated the feasibility of a standardized multiple choice vocabulary test (i.e., the MWT-B, Lehrl, 1999) to estimate PIQ in cognitive impairment. Khandaker et al.`s (2011) meta-analysis examined the association between PIQ and the schizophrenia disorder, but no measurement of PWR was mentioned. Finally, Russell et al. (2000) investigated the validity of an irregular COMMENTARY ON DEL PINO 3 English words reading test (i.e., the National Adult Reading Test, NART; Nelson & Willison, 1991) as an estimate of PIQ in schizophrenia. In summary, the mentioned studies do not provide data related to the PWR task as an estimate of PIQ, while they do so for other word reading or vocabulary tasks, with mixed results.Del Pino et al. also claimed that "Concerning reading PW tests, the Spot-the-Word test (Baddeley et al., 1993) was proposed as an adequate instrument to assess premorbid IQ in older adults with normal aging as well as in patients with dementia (Friedman et al., 1992;Patterson et al., 1994;McFarlane et al., 2006)." (p. 2). Importantly, the Spot-the-Word (STW) test is not a PWR task but a lexical decision task (i.e., participants must identify the word in a pair of items comprising one word and one pseudoword). Friedman et al. (1992) demonstrated that the ability to read aloud a specific kind of unfamiliar pseudowords remains relatively preserved in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The patients showed a poorer performance with the pseudowords that can be decoded exclusively on grapheme-phoneme correspondence (GPC) rules in comparison with the pseudowords that can also be read by analogy to alike words.Friedman et al. concluded that in the frame of dual-route reading models (e.g., Coltheart et al., 2001), AD patients are successful in PWR by developing automatic lexical-analogy mechanisms based on the lexical reading route and not through the GPC route. By contrast, Patterson et al. (1994) observed that PWR performance gradually declined across subgroups of AD at different (growing) levels of severity, even though all the employed items had conventional spelling patterns and rather word-like pronunciations.Differential effects in reading acquisition and adult reading have been found for languages that vary in the transparency of their spelling and in their metric systems (e.g., Seymour et al., 2003). Cross-language studies show that decoding skills (i.e., the application of GPC rules to letter and PWR) are learnt relatively early and with ease by normal child readers of transparent orthographies, while in languages with opaque orthographies these skills are established slower.Additionally, individual variability in decoding is much greater in opaque than in transparent languages (Seymour, 2005;Seymour et al., 2003), the relevance of decoding decreases with time (i.e., virtually all 5th-graders in transparent orthographies can master the GPC-rules (Burani et al., 2002;Jiménez-González & Hernández-Valle, 2000), and the reading experience favours the development of orthographic-lexical knowledge (e.g., Carrillo et al., 2013). From these results, we can conclude that 1) both reading effects observed and reading processes inferred in opaque languages, as English, cannot be directly generalized to other transparent languages, as Spanish; and 2) it is unlikely that PWR can reflect the engagement of cognitive skills needed to estimate the complex construct of IQ, at least in transparent orthographies.Moreover, the easiness of acquisition and mastering PWR in transparent orthographies cast doubts on its discriminant power.Del stated that several studies had criticized the use of the vocabulary test to estimate PIQ "…because vocabulary is known to decline with aging and is sensitive to brain damage" (p. 2); moreover, the authors pointed out that reading ability, when automatized, is "highly resistant to cognitive impairment" (p. 2). However, there is extensive literature that describes cases of acquired dyslexia after brain injury (Newcombe & Marshall, 1981). If vocabulary tests are not recommended to estimate PIQ because of their sensitivity to brain damage, PWR should not be employed in this quality either, at least for patients with a possible damage in the left temporal and parietal areas. Moreover, we should not obviate that developmental dyslexia is characterized by specific difficulties with PWR (Suárez-Coalla & Cuetos, 2015); importantly, this disorder has a considerable population prevalence of 10% (Jiménez et al., 2009;López-Escribano et al., 2018;Wagner et al., 2020).In summary, for some reason it has been assumed without sufficient evidence that PWR performance is an adequate estimate of premorbid PIQ. Furthermore, there is some reasonable COMMENTARY ON DEL PINO ET AL. ( 2018) 5 evidence suggesting that such an assumption is unlikely to be true, at least in Spanish and in other transparent orthographies.
With the technological benefits and challenges computer-mediated communication provides, interactants in social network service (SNS) communication are driven to use language creatively, overcoming the disadvantages and exploiting advantages. This creative language use leads to innovative language change that often extends beyond SNS environments. In this regard, the medium is not merely a restrictive but also a facilitative factor. Communicative acts are fundamentally bound by the interactants’ desire to express politeness, especially in face-threatening acts, well articulated in Brown and Levinson’s (1987) model. In recent research, however, the issues of the norms of politeness and impoliteness as well as those of appropriateness have been highlighted (Locher Watts 2005, Locher Bousfield 2008). Interactants employ not only mitigating strategies to alleviate face-threatening but also use impoliteness strategies, which are often disguised politeness. Drawing upon the data from a 26-million-word corpus of synchronous SNS communication, involving two or more participants, in 3,836 instances, developed by the National Institute of the Korean Language, this paper addresses how SNS interactants make use of diverse elements of language to show their polite and impolite stances in interpersonal negotiation. For instance, interactants use fragments, interjections, letter-based ideophones and emoticons, exaggerated punctuations for emotiveness, omission of regular punctuation marks, intentional violation of orthographic rules, prolific slang expressions, deviated spelling to create cuteness or intimacy, among numerous others. All these creative strategies lead to language change at lexical, grammatical and discourse levels.
The article studies the peculiarities of coining a new term "regulatory guillotine" in the modern Russian language. It describes the semantic, syntagmatic and pragmatic features of this term. It has been established that at the initial stage of its entry into the legal discourse, the term "regulatory guillotine" is characterized by high variation. Here are revealed its semantic, grammatical and graphic variants. Based on comparative analysis of various definitions of the term "regulatory guillotine", as well as on its syntagmatics in legal discourse, the author concludes it necessary to amend the definition of this term. A new term can be prospectively developed in close connection with the field knowledge and traditional use of the Russian language in texts of official communication. When describing the syntagmatics of the term in the academic legal discourse, the author points out a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility of the modern Russian literary language. The syntagmatics of the term "regulatory guillotine" in the Russian legal discourse reflects at the linguistic level the peculiarities of the correlation of the general and special consciousness of lawyers. It is also established that in the processes of functioning of the term "regulatory guillotine", quotation marks convey a complex mix of different kinds of information. The use of the term "regulatory guillotine" in the legal text with quotation marks and without quotation marks expresses a certain pragmatic meaning of the attitude of the subject of speech to the linguistic sign. Quotation marks implement both figurative and metalinguistic functions, and are also a means of adapting a metaphor-term to legal discourse.
The article is an analytical review of some problems of dictionary codification of Luxembourg German Standard. The relevance of the study lies in the fact that the Luxembourg variety of German Standard, which differs in a number of distinctive features from other national varieties of the German language, is still poorly studied. Some aspects of the study of the German language in Luxembourg, the criteria of the standard in general and the features of the Luxembourg standard of the German language in particular are briefly described. The main part of the study is the analysis of current lexicographic sources that codify the specific features of the pronunciation, grammar, lexical and semantic norms of the Luxembourg Standard. The results of the analysis of lexicographic sources, which are descriptive codifiers of the German Standard in Luxembourg, are presented: a pronunciation dictionary of the Standard High German language, the project “Regional Variation in the Grammar of Standard German”, dictionaries of varieties of the German language. The structure and content of the dictionary of the Luxembourg standard for the German language [Sieburg, 2022] are considered in detail. This includes general information about the mega-, macro- and microstructure of the dictionary, the subject and variable characteristics of the codified vocabulary, the features of the structure and content of dictionary entries. As a result of the analysis, a conclusion is made about the development of the normalizing activity of the Luxembourg German Standard and about the recognizing of this standard, which has specific features at different levels of the language system.
В статье представлен опыт составления «Словаря топонимов Республики Саха (Якутия): населенные пункты» на русском языке, включающего 562 словарные статьи. Актуальность работы обусловлена активизацией топонимических исследований в регионе и возникшей необходимостью фиксации его топонимической системы в данный исторический период. Новизна определяется охватом топонимического материала, глубиной его анализа, а также широтой лингвистических и экстралингвистических проблем, решаемых в процессе сбора языкового материала и составления статей словаря. Анализируются требования к составлению топонимических словарей, выявляются трудности составления словарных статей и предлагаются пути их решения. Подготовка материалов для словаря была сопряжена с рядом проблем, которые в ходе исследования были решены: предложено фиксировать повторяющиеся наименования населенных пунктов в одной словарной статье с указанием месторасположения каждого; в качестве заголовочного слова выбрано официальное современное русскоязычное наименование, к которому в скобках прилагается якутское название, их орфографическое и графическое оформление (особенно при наличии вариантов) определено в соответствии с требованием нормализации наименований географических объектов Федерального закона РФ; в качестве справочного материала в словарные статьи включены все имеющиеся на данный момент сведения о происхождении ойконима, языке-источнике, а также информация этнографического характера; для обозначения местонахождения приводится административно-территориальная характеристика географического объекта. Для дальнейшей работы определяются перспективы сбора и анализа материала над дополненным и исправленным изданием словаря, дается обоснование необходимости фиксации в словаре акцентологических норм, а также включения в новый словарь сведений о других территориально-муниципальных наименованиях: наслегах, сельских поселениях, районах и улусах Республики Саха (Якутия). The article describes the experience of compiling the dictionary of toponyms of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia): Settlements, which contains 562 lexical entries. The relevance of the work arises from the activation of toponymic research in the region and the need to document its toponymic system in this historical period. The scope of the toponymic material determines the novelty of the work, the depth of the analysis, and the extent of the linguistic and extra-linguistic problems solved in the collection of the linguistic material and the compilation of the lexical entries. The requirements for the preparation of toponymic dictionaries are analyzed, the difficulties in compiling lexical entries are pointed out, and possible solutions are suggested. In preparing the materials for the dictionary, there were a number of problems that were solved in the course of the study: it was proposed to combine the repeated names of settlements into one lexical entry indicating the location of each settlement; the official modern Russian language name is chosen as the introductory word and is connected in parentheses with the Yakut name, with the spelling and graphic design (especially if there are options) determined in accordance with the requirement of unification of names of geographical features from the federal law of the Russian Federation; the lexical entries contain all currently available information on the origin of the oikonym, the source language and ethnographic information as reference material; an administrative-territorial characteristic of the geographical feature is given to indicate the location. Perspectives are given for collecting and analyzing the material for further work on the revised and corrected edition of the dictionary; reasons are given for the need to document accent norms in the dictionary, as well as for the inclusion of information on other territorial and communal names in the new dictionary: territories, rural settlements, regions and districts, and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).
Abstract Background Primary progressive aphasias (PPA) are a group of neurocognitive disorders caused by neurodegenerative diseases and defined by progressive deterioration of language capabilities. PPA are traditionally classified into three predominant variants: nonfluent‐agrammatic, semantic, and logopenic. Emerging studies suggest an individual’s spoken language impacts the clinical presentation of PPA variants, potentially leading to misdiagnosis in languages underrepresented in research. We aimed at phenotyping PPA in native speakers of Hebrew, a Semitic language, with unique characteristics such as: under‐representation of vowels in the orthography, which makes it easier to detect various types of dyslexia, rich inflectional and derivational morphology, making it easier to identify morphosyntactic impairments, and, together with object case, making word order more flexible, enabling the examination of various syntactic deficits (e.g. in syntactic‐movement). Methods Four native Hebrew speakers diagnosed with PPA (Mesulam 2001 criteria), aged 58‐68, complaint duration prior to assessment 10‐60 months, underwent assessment in Rabin Medical Center, Israel. Each participant underwent neurological evaluation, brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and multi‐domain cognitive testing. Regional brain atrophy on T1 weighted MRI was rated with validated visual atrophy scales. All participants subsequently underwent Hebrew language evaluation using Norm‐referenced tests, assessing syntax, lexical retrieval, reading (including words and nonwords sensitive to various dyslexia types), semantic and conceptual abilities tasks, and phonology. Results Participant’s presenting complaint was word finding difficulty (n = 3) and non‐fluent speech (n = 1). All participants exhibited deficits in the comprehension and production of syntactic movement including one participant with no other language deficits on formal testing and no brain atrophy. Three participants exhibited various dyslexias including morphological deficits,attentional dyslexia, vowel dyslexia, and surface dyslexia. As expected, poor scores on tests of lexical retrieval and syntax were observed in subjects with severe left anterior‐temporal and left fronto‐insular atrophy respectively. Conclusion To our knowledge, this is the first case series of PPA in native Hebrew speakers. Errors in syntactic movement and various dyslexia types were common in all subjects suggesting they may be useful in early‐stage diagnosis. Full results (language, cognitive and neuroimaging), including additional eight cases will be presented in the AAIC conference.
The article examines the dynamics of word formation of names of persons of the feminine gender during the 20th and early 21st centuries. The trends of prescriptive and descriptive norms in connection with non-linguistic factors of different historical periods are clarified. The vocabulary of feminine nouns had signs of natural language development until the end of the 20th century and acquired threatening proportions in the last decade, which can lead to the destruction of the phonetic, morphonological structure of the word and the literary norm in general. The issue of creating feminine names in the Ukrainian literary language has gained significant resonance in recent years. Among the reasons for its actualization, linguists cite the powerful socialization of modern women, their involvement in the spheres of “male” activity, state-building tendencies to assert national identity (“restoration” of the purity and authenticity of the language), the impact of the democratization of society on the literary standard. Language always responds to the demands of society and this is one of the drivers of its natural development, but provided that these changes correspond to its structural features, in the case of names of persons of the feminine gender, to the potential possibilities of word creation. As evidenced by language practice, this is the main and defining problem that can have not only negative, but also destructive consequences for the grammatical system in general. Any word-formation models are embedded in the language a priori, and have certain precedents throughout its historical development. The creation of personal names has a long tradition in the Ukrainian language and is primarily based on the principles of the internal structure of the dictionary. The most important and unchanged for all generations of linguists were the instructions of the norm-makers of 20th century on the natural development of the language, which is decisive for its life activity as a whole. At the current stage of language functioning, the normativity of a word depends on its compliance with the phonetic and morphological structure of the Ukrainian lexicon and the lexical norm in general.
The article analyzes the notions of “Zuordnung” in K. Larenz and R. Alexy as, respectively, the addition of a fact, literally: a life process, the circumstances of a case, to a type, that is, to a non-semantic norm, and the addition of new norms to already established norms. The purpose of the study was to determine the meaning of the term “Zuordnung” in the jurisprudence of K. Larenz’s assessments and R. Alexy’s theory of rational legal discourse. Four questions are considered: about the lexical meaning of the word “Zuordnung” in German and the methods of its translation into Ukrainian, about the concepts of inclusion in K. Larenz and R. Alexy, as well as about the relationship between these concepts. In the first case, it is stated that the word “Zuordnung” in German is a tracing of the Latin word “coordinatio”, and in Ukrainian it can potentially be translated, depending on the context, in several ways, in particular, the words “combination”, “subordination”, “coordination”, “assignment” and “attachment”. Of these options, which do not coincide in everything, the word “attachment” can best convey the meaning that both K. Larenz and R. Alexy mainly put into the concept of “Zuordnung”. The study of the concept of attachment in K. Larenz demonstrates that the author uses the word “Zuordnung” initially in three aspects: in the structure of the legal norm as the attachment of the actual composition of the norm to the legal consequence of the norm; in the theory of types as the attachment of a life process or the circumstances of a case to a type and within the framework of the analysis of the so-called concrete-general concept, which is closely related to Hegel’s philosophy. Later addition in K. Larenz is associated mainly with the theory of types. This leads to the fact that attachment is primarily an alternative to subsummation and consists in the coordinating conjunction of fact and type, which is understood as a normative-empirical form of thinking. As part of the analysis of the concept of inclusion in R. Alexy, it was established that the word “Zuordnung” (attachment) in him has a direct relationship, as can already be seen from the term he chose, to the formation of the so-called “attached norms”. In this case, the addition, as well as the coordinating conjunction, but not the fact and (normative real) type, but the norm and norm, consists in adding new norms to the positive legal system: either the addition of principles that were legally invalid before that, or the addition of rules based on a weighing of principles. Therefore, in R. Alexy, inclusion is a prerequisite or a complement to subsumption, as well as the result of correct reasoning. The latter indicates why in the theory of rational legal discourse (argumentation, justification) so much attention is paid to joining. As a result of the comparison of the concepts of inclusion in K. Larenz and R. Alexy, it is noted that these concepts are alternative, and therefore the use of one approach leads to the leveling of the applied value of the other. R. Alexy’s concept of inclusion as a so-called external justification, which in complex cases is a prerequisite for subsumption (internal justification), has an advantage over K. Lorenz’s concept of inclusion as an alternative to subsumption of internal justification. This is explained by the fact that the first approach leads to operating with a norm capable of subsumption as a result, and the second – to operating as such incapable of subsumption, as a matter of fact, a norm-type. Therefore, the addition of K. Larenz takes place instead of subsumation, and the addition of R. Alexy along with subsumption and to it.
Abstract Variationist studies have shown the implication of tie properties in the emergence and preservation of linguistic norms. This contribution deepens the understanding of this mechanism at the dyadic level. It explores relational subjectivity and relativity among individuals of a community and their implications in the distribution of lexical variants. The aim is to understand how the reciprocity of a relation influences the share of lexical practices. To do so, we analyze the network of discussions of bachelor's degree students of the University of Geneva and their lexical practices. Using the modern methods used in social network analysis to study relational properties and by running multiple regression quadratic assignment procedure (MRQAP), reciprocal interactions are found to lead to a higher lexical share and similarity.
Background. Nowadays, almost all indexed journals expect submissions in English, which is a great challenge for exophonic authors. Code-switching context, where cross-language effects, especially native language interference, are well distinct, is critical for approaching the dilemma. Navigating the complicated issues of language-related challenges will be impossible without referring to three crucial levels of written production: lexical, syntactic, and textual. In our investigation, we address the nature of potential errors and their inter- and intralingual origins. In particular, we identify and interpret the deviations from Standard English in scholarly research writing of Ukrainian authors in the field of life sciences, exemplify and classify errors into categories based on the type of language misuse. Materials and Methods. Language material for the study comprised 50 manuscripts submitted by authors from Ukraine to the journal “Studia Biologica”. This research is a mixed-method study encompassing descriptive qualitative and descriptive quantitative methods. Content analysis was employed as the data gathering technique. The analysis of texts was focused on tracing deviations from consistent principles and rules of Standard English and linguistic features of English research discourse and encompassed such steps as highlighting the error, cross-checking and stating the deviation, listing and classifying the errors, and tracing a possible connection of the error to authors’ first language interference. Results. The study identified language areas where Ukrainian authors fail to effectively communicate their ideas to the global academic community. At the textual level, the problem areas encompass defective paragraph structure and excessive verbosity. At the syntactic level, the most critical deviations from the language and stylistic norm comprised misuses of word order and clauses, wordy and confusing sentences with multiple issues that hinder the readability of text. The most widespread grammatical mistakes include missing predicates, faulty subject-verb agreement, incorrect forms of the verb, and inappropriate use of articles, pronouns, demonstratives and quantifiers. At the lexical level, the prevalent errors relate to various types of loan translation, but also include improper word choices and poor vocabulary. Orthographic mistakes, though in minority, refer to the spelling of toponyms, capitalisation, switching from American to British orthographic standards and other random spelling errors. Conclusions. An insight into the nature of the analysed deviations suggests the presence of both intra- and interlingual factors that cause mistakes in papers submitted for publication in the field of life sciences. The error analysis can be beneficial in the educational process for both educators and practitioners. Proper understanding of the functional mechanism of the mistakes might increase the awareness of the potential pitfalls and consequently help avoid them. The classification of errors can be adopted in the educational process and contribute to the development of error pedagogy.
Being a dynamic system, the language continuously evolves and perfects its means of expression simultaneously with the transformations in society and technological progress. Currently, the foreign lexical elements, especially from English, represent one of the main sources of enriching the Romanian language vocabulary. As long as the use of Anglicisms cannot be prevented, they must be recorded in a correct form, with recommendations regarding their adaptation to the norms of the language. In the present study, we examine the behavior of Anglicisms in the third edition of DOOM with special reference to orthography, pronunciation and grammatical usage indications (articulation, plural formation). We analyze the words taken from the English language that have recently acquired a wider circulation in the actual use and have penetrated into certain domains such as information technology, the business environment, science, entertainment, fashion.
Abstract This article applies translational norm theory to bilingual lexicography, arguing that the bilingual lexicographer serves as a “norm authority,” and the bilingual dictionary functions as a “norm statement” that prescribes the scope of what is considered legitimate interlingual equivalence within a given society. To demonstrate how the content of a bilingual dictionary can be used to promote specific translation norms, the headwords, equivalents, directives, and examples found in the North Korean bilingual dictionary, Jo-Yeong Sajeon ( JYS ) [Korean–English Dictionary] (1987/1991), were analyzed as a case study. The Korean–English lexical pairings presented in the JYS are matched with exemplary Korean–English translations listed in two North Korean translation textbooks, Jo-Yeong Beonyeokbeop [Korean–English Translation Method] ( Min 2012 ) and Yeong-Jo Beonyeokbeop [English–Korean Translation Method] ( Min 2014 ), affirming that the translation norms featured in the JYS hold normative force over the decisions made by professional translators.
Abstract As hypothesized by Bem (1981)’s Gender Schema Theory, individuals regulate themselves and their expectations towards others according to the gender norms in a community. The current study examines children’s gender schema regarding the language styles in compliments addressed to both the gendered self and others. Two types of oral discourse completion tasks were designed for the purpose, where twenty-five Mandarin-speaking children were instructed to pay compliments in a normal-speaking style and an imitated style of the opposite gender. Machine learning algorithms were implemented to analyze the variations of language features at lexical, discourse-pragmatic, and discourse-semantic levels. The results show that, compared to lexical features such as lexical richness and word choices, discourse-pragmatic features are more prone to gender ideologies and exhibit style-shifting in children’s imitation of the opposite sex when addressing compliments. At the discourse-semantic level, a significantly low probability of positivity was demonstrated in girls’ imitated compliments, according to the results of the logistic regression. In general, the findings support the presence of gender-differentiated language styles among pre-adolescent children. In particular, girls at this age have developed the stereotype that boys tend to use language with a less prosocial sentiment for the manifestation of their “maleness”. Directions for improving the experimental design and uncovering the possible confounding mechanisms were discussed to illuminate the multidimensional complexity of the cross-gender variations in the more nuanced speech traits, such as the use of intensifiers.
Objective: Verbal memory deficits are present in multiple sclerosis (MS), but neither inflammatory T2 lesion volume nor cerebral atrophy (generalized or localized hippocampal atrophy) fully explain disease-related verbal memory changes. Importantly, the hippocampus does not function in a vacuum; memory encoding and retrieval requires interactions between the hippocampus and cortical areas where information is processed and represented. Indeed, we have previously shown that lexical access speed (a language function assessed by rapid automatized naming) independently predicted delayed recall of verbal information (word list) for persons with MS, even when controlling for total learning. Informed by this work and recent ultra high field (7.0 Tesla) MRI research reporting high cortical lesion count in regions associated with phonological processing (e.g., plenum temporale, superior temporal gyrus), we assessed whether phonological processing independently explains verbal memory deficits in persons with MS. Participants and Methods: Analyses were performed on a clinical sample of persons with MS aged 18 to 59 years (n=60: 49 relapsing, 11 progressive). Word-list memory was assessed by the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, Revised (HVLT-R), which yielded scores for Total Learning (TL) and Delayed Recall (DR). Phonological processing was assessed with WIAT-4 Phonemic Proficiency. WIAT-4 Sentence Repetition was utilized as a non-phonological language control task, and WIAT-4 Word Reading was administered to control for premorbid verbal ability. CANTAB Paired Associate Learning served as a nonverbal memory comparison. Performance on tasks was standardized using published age-adjusted norms. Primary analyses used partial correlations to assess relationships between Phonemic Proficiency and (a) HVLT-R TL and DR controlling for WIAT-4 Word Reading, and (b) HVLT-R DR controlling for WIAT-4 Word Reading and HVLT-R TL. To assess specificity to phonological processing, the same partial correlations assessed relationships between Sentence Repetition and HVLT-R variables, and between Phonemic Proficiency and nonverbal memory (CANTAB PAL). Results: When controlling for premorbid verbal ability, Phonemic Proficiency performance accounted for 7.8% of the variance in HVLT-R TL (r partial =0.28, p=0.031) and 16% of the variance in HVLT-R DR (r partial =0.40, p=0.002). Moreover, when additionally controlling for HVLT-R TL, Phonemic Proficiency still accounted for 10% of the variance in HVLT-R DR (r partial — 0.32, p=0.016). Showing specificity to phonological processing ability, performance on Sentence Repetition was not significantly related to HVLT-R DR when controlling for premorbid verbal ability (WIAT-4 Word Reading) and HVLT-R TL (r partial =0.09, p=0.510). Showing specificity to verbal memory, neither Phonemic Proficiency nor Sentence Repetition performance were reliably related to CANTAB PAL for any variance in performance in nonverbal memory (Ps>0.9). Conclusions: Results suggest that language ability, specifically phonological processing, contributes to delayed recall of word lists independent of premorbid verbal ability and initial total learning scores in persons with MS. These findings demonstrate contributions of language ability to verbal memory and highlight the need for further research into language ability changes in persons with MS. This may have implications for verbal memory rehabilitation in MS.
The second part of the paper considers the norms of using various lexical and grammatical categories of pronouns. Additionally, the research reveals their significance in promoting school students’ speech culture. Sixth-form students learn to differentiate between lexical-semantic and grammatical norms, use pronouns correctly in sentences as well as in texts, and examine them with the help of linguistic analysis and generalisation. This approach to learning pronouns encourages schoolchildren to evaluate speech in terms of correctness, to detect speech errors and correct them. The presented methodology for studying pronouns helps to engage schoolchildren in unsupervised research activity when proofreading texts with the aid of algorithms. It also increases the cognitive activity level in the classroom and forms speech culture.
Abstract While raising has been allegedly claimed to not exist in Arabic, we here present data from the vernacular varieties to illustrate how these have lexicalized and grammaticalized innovative lexical raising predicates meaning ‘seem, appear, as though’, and by association, the grammaticalization of the raising structures in which such predicates appear. The full array of it -expletive type constructions, subj -to- subj raising and copy raising structures are manifest in the dialects. In the latter construction, as is the case in Standard Arabic, some dialects employ a designate complementizer form. Our discussion on raising reveals that hyperraising, a sub-type of subj -to- subj raising involving a finite embedded clause, is available across the vernacular varieties. The comparative overview taken in this work suggests that canonical lexical verbal raising predicates are not the norm in Arabic, and that in the overwhelming majority of the dialects, the lexical verbal predicates that mean ‘appear, seem’ either stop short from subcategorizing for a clausal complement, or if they do, they only allow an it -expletive type of structure. This has in turn paved the way for a range of verbal, nominal and prepositional items to undergo a number of semantic, functional, and structural developments that synchronically avail the vernacular varieties with the possibility of varied sorts of raising structures.
OBJECTIVES: to analyze the social representations of rural women about being a woman in the rural context and its implications for sexual and reproductive health. METHODS: this is a descriptive qualitative study with data triangulation, based on the Theory of Social Representations, developed with 31 women who live in the rural context of Minas Gerais (MG/BR). An in-depth interview with a semi-structured script was conducted. A lexical analysis was performed with the help of the ALCESTE 2012 software. RESULTS: the family relationship, especially the couple's, demonstrated subjectivities and was permeated by violence and normalized sexual practice. The imagery dimension of the ideal family seems to be responsible for exerting domination over rural women. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS: rural women are subject to the norms and prescriptions of a patriarchal society. It is urgent to increase attention to sexual and reproductive health in an egalitarian and liberating way in order to minimize the consequences of machismo and conservatism.
The relevance of the article. Charitable activities play an important role in the formation of value guidelines and moral norms of an individual and society as a whole. Its development is determined by various factors that occur in society. The start of active hostilities in Ukraine in 2022 affected all spheres of human existence. Among them, there were changes in the functioning and development strategies of charity events, in particular events. This issue needs clarification, because it will allow not only to understand the strategies of adaptation of this form of charity, but also to predict further ways of its transformation. That is why scientific, including socio-cultural analysis of the phenomenon of charity event is extremely relevant. The purpose of the article. To analyze charitable events in the socio-cultural space in the conditions of a full-scale Russian-Ukrainian war; to reveal the cultural, artistic, financial and technical factors affecting the organization and holding of events. The methodology. A cultural approach to the analysis of the mentioned problem demonstrates that the concept of charity belongs to certain historically developed and regulated norms of social actions that implement their worldview orientations and cultural values. The specifics of scientific intelligence led to the use of the structural-functional method, which made it possible to investigate specific functional characteristics and regularities. The method of content analysis and personal practical experience of holding events made it possible to determine the artistic features of conducting charity events, the method of terminological analysis helped to find out that the Polonism “impreza” successfully filled a gap in the lexical system of the Ukrainian language. The results. We believe that charity is one of the “material” factors of the spiritual culture of mankind. This phenomenon arose spontaneously at the beginning of human civilization. Subsequently, it developed as targeted attention and concrete help from society to people who are unable to independently solve the issue of personal livelihood due to a number of reasons (subjective or objective). If we trace the genesis of charity, it is possible to distinguish three main historical types that are peculiar to the Western European mentality: ancient, Christian and modern charity. It was revealed that today the prevalence of charity in Ukraine is rated as “high”. It has been found out that in terms of its artistic structure, the charity event has all the features inherent in such forms of stage art as collective concert, thematic spectacle, solo concert. However, when forming the concept of a charity event, the organizers should naturally and organically integrate an auction, exhibition, fair or active online donation into the structure of the event. An important factor in organizing a charity event is attracting external help and finding people you can rely on and who will show a genuine interest in this cause. Involvement in a charity project must be voluntary, following the “calling of the heart”. It can be assumed that true humanism is achieved exclusively in the conditions of practical realization of the essence of a person through his actions. The scientific novelty. The time of military aggression was systematized, the place and role of domestic artists in the charitable sphere was established. Sociocultural functions of the phenomenon of charity events in Ukraine were generalized. The practical significance. The data of this study reveal various types and forms of charity events as effective factors in fundraising. The materials of the article can be used for the practical organization of a charity project and the theoretical features of the organization of charity art projects studied by film director students. Conclusions. Charitable activity is a determining point of reference in the formation of moral and ethical values and humanistic relations in society. Thanks to the holding of charity events, a number of psychological, social and political issues are resolved, in particular, the formation of national identity, which is an integral factor of Ukraine’s national security. At the international level, artistic charity events primarily carry out “cultural diplomacy” with the aim of conveying the truth about Ukraine and the war in Ukraine, and more broadly — explaining and understanding what Ukraine and its culture actually are, what is its self-sufficiency and diversity, how this energy was manifested at different historical stages despite mostly unfavorable socio-political contexts.
The research examines the binary opposition of “good” and “evil” in the English and French languages within the context of foreign language teaching. The aim is to analyze these concepts’ lexical-semantic and cultural aspects and explore their implications for foreign language learners. The study adopts a comparative approach, considering the similarities and differences in representing “good” and “evil” in the two distantly related languages. The analysis focuses on the semantic structure and distribution of lexical units associated with these concepts and the cultural connotations embedded in their usage. The research focuses on how the binary opposition of “good” and “evil” impacts language learners’ understanding of the target culture and their ability to communicate effectively in the foreign language. The latter gain a deeper appreciation of the target culture’s moral values and social dynamics by examining the cultural meanings and connotations associated with these oppositions. The findings highlight the asymmetry of lexical units within the lexical-semantic groups of “good” and “evil”, revealing discrepancies in the number and distribution of words and their meanings. Antonymy and enantiosemy are identified as regularities in forming vocabulary, denoting good and evil in the compared languages. These linguistic tools enable learners to express contrasting concepts and enhance their linguistic and intercultural awareness. Incorporating the binary opposition of “good” and “evil” in foreign language teaching can promote a deeper understanding of the target culture’s values, norms, and worldview. Learners become more sensitive to cultural aspects and better equipped to navigate intercultural interactions by unravelling the underlying cultural codes embedded in language.
Distributed representations of words encode lexical semantic information, but what type of information is encoded and how? Focusing on the skip-gram with negative-sampling method, we found that the squared norm of static word embedding encodes the information gain conveyed by the word; the information gain is defined by the Kullback-Leibler divergence of the co-occurrence distribution of the word to the unigram distribution. Our findings are explained by the theoretical framework of the exponential family of probability distributions and confirmed through precise experiments that remove spurious correlations arising from word frequency. This theory also extends to contextualized word embeddings in language models or any neural networks with the softmax output layer. We also demonstrate that both the KL divergence and the squared norm of embedding provide a useful metric of the informativeness of a word in tasks such as keyword extraction, proper-noun discrimination, and hypernym discrimination.
The need for communication is fundamental for humans. Communication is an integral element of peopleʼs existence, the most important condition for full-fledged formation and development of personality. Modern science considers communication as an exchange of information, interaction, and perception of a person by a person. The entire system of human attitudes towards other people is realized in communication. It covers various areas of social interaction of people including the professional field of activity. Interpersonal communication is mostly dialogic and is an indispensable component of professional medical activity. It largely determines the relationship between the doctor and the patient from the very beginning and contributes to the establishment of the necessary trust between them. The article includes an analysis of recent publications devoted to investigations of the issue of training future foreign doctors in professional communication in institutions of higher education. The article highlights the need of modern society for specialists of high culture who possess professional communication skills, high adaptability, and professional mobility. The authors emphasize that the modern language training of a future foreign doctor should be focused on teaching the situational and contextual adequate use of language as a means of oral and written communication in all areas of professional communication. The professional speech of future medical workers is the mastery of literary language norms, professional terminology, and standardized constructions of the medical field, the ability to use language tools in accordance with the purpose and situation of communication. The authors hope that a short-term Ukrainian language medical terminology course for foreign students of the third year of a school of medicine developed by the teachers of the Language Training Department of International Education Institute for Study and Research of V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University will help students to master professional language skills. The course is designed for 20 hours of classroom practical lessons. The proposed course implements the set tasks in the formation of the terminological competence of medical students, contains the most productive teaching methods, and defines the stages of dealing with professional vocabulary: 1) presentation of new vocabulary; 2) automation of lexical skills; 3) organization of repetition of studentsʼ acquisition of vocabulary and quality control of the previously learned material. The authors see prospects for further research in identifying the conditions for the formation of the readiness of medical students for professionally oriented communication, in the design of the model of formation of the culture of the future specialist under the conditions of professionally oriented communication and experimental verification of its effectiveness.
Introduction. War has always been a powerful trigger for the emergence of newly formed words in the vocabulary of any language. The Ukrainian language is no exception, and in the wake of Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, it has been replenished with a significant number of neologisms. The Russian-Ukrainian war, which is still in the focus of the world community’s attention, has proven the multifaceted support of Ukraine in the international arena and has caused the appearance of numerous publications in the media space, including online publications in periodicals and posts on social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. That is why the translation of neologisms from Ukrainian into English in wartime media texts is particularly relevant. Purpose. The purpose of the article is to outline the main ways of translating into English emotionally charged neologisms that are inherent in wartime media texts. Methods. The integrated study of neologisms in wartime media space and their translation from Ukrainian into English involved the application of the following methods: the method of continuous sampling (for assembling neologisms in wartime media texts), the method of descriptive observation (for clarifying possible ways of translating neologisms), methods of analysis and synthesis (for systematization and classification of neologisms of various part-of-speech and word- formation affiliation, singling out pragmatic and stylistic peculiarities of their translation, formulation of conclusions). Results. The newly formed words and collocations in the Ukrainian language are mostly associated with well-known public figures and military leaders, military operations on the territory of certain geographical objects, names of weapons, etc. Some neologisms appeared only with the start of Russia’s full-scale invasion, while other already existing lexical items acquired new meanings. The common characteristic feature of all wartime neologisms is their emotional colouring. As a living flexible organism language is able to absorb like a sponge all the negative and positive human emotions of the Russian-Ukrainian war. Each neologism of the Ukrainian language is a reflection of the military actions and related phenomena that are currently taking place on the territory of Ukraine, as well as a kind of container of various emotions experienced by Ukrainians working on different fronts to defend their homeland. A significant layer of neologisms is emotionally loaded invective vocabulary, which serves as a kind of verbal means of liberation from the aggression caused by the Russian-Ukrainian war and finds its manifestation in swearing, mockery or cursing the occupiers. According to the results of the study, the typical ways of creating neologisms include affixation, composition, telescopy and shortening. Due to a thorough analysis of wartime neologisms in the Ukrainian and English media texts, it was found that the main translation techniques are transliteration, transcription, calquing, substitution, and explication. When dealing with catchphrases the most appropriate method is literary translation. In addition, the stylistic features of translating neologisms in wartime media texts include pejorative grammar – decapitalized proper names, graphon – a deliberate distortion of the spelling norm, metaphorical antonomasia – the use of proper names of historical figures, literary or biblical characters having a certain characteristic feature; euphemisms – tolerant words or phrases used to replace unpleasant and obscene words, periphrases – descriptive naming of certain objects by highlighting their characteristic features. Originality. The article presents the first attempt of making a deep insight into the translation peculiarities of the emotionally charged neologisms in wartime media texts. Conclusion. The results of the study prove that, on the one hand, the emotionally charged wartime neologisms serve to name new realities and concepts, and on the other hand, reflect the rethinking of reality through the prism of the Russian-Ukrainian war, the figurative thinking and the impressive sense of the Ukrainian humour. The main techniques of translating neologisms from Ukrainian into English in wartime media texts include transliteration, transcription, calquing, substitution, explication and literal translation of catchphrases. Pejorative grammar, graphon, metaphorical antonomasia, euphemization, and periphrasis are effective stylistic tools aimed at fulfilling the pragmatic function of protesting against the war and ridiculing the occupiers. We consider further research of the possible ways of translating into English non-equivalent neologisms in modern military discourse to be much promising.
Background: An individual's diagnostic subtype may fail to predict the efficacy of a given type of treatment for anomia. Classification by conceptual-semantic impairment may be more informative. Aims: This study examined the effects of conceptual-semantic impairment and diagnostic subtype on anomia treatment effects in primary progressive aphasia (PPA) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Methods & Procedures: tests were used to measure conceptual-semantic processing. Based on norming that was conducted with unimpaired older adults, participants were classified as being impaired on both the picture and word versions (i.e., modality-general conceptual-semantic impairment), the picture version (Objects or Actions) only (i.e., visual-conceptual impairment), the word version (Nouns or Verbs) only (i.e., lexical-semantic impairment), or neither the picture nor the word version (i.e., no impairment). Following baseline testing, a lexical treatment and a semantic treatment were administered to all participants. The treatment stimuli consisted of nouns and verbs that were consistently named correctly at baseline (Prophylaxis items) and/or nouns and verbs that were consistently named incorrectly at baseline (Remediation items). Naming accuracy was measured at baseline, and it was measured at three, seven, eleven, fourteen, eighteen, and twenty-one months. Outcomes & Results: Compared to baseline naming performance, lexical and semantic treatments both improved naming accuracy for treated Remediation nouns and verbs. For Prophylaxis items, lexical treatment was effective for both nouns and verbs, and semantic treatment was effective for verbs, but the pattern of results was different for nouns -- the effect of semantic treatment was initially nonsignificant or marginally significant, but it was significant beginning at 11 Months, suggesting that the effects of prophylactic semantic treatment may become more apparent as the disorder progresses. Furthermore, the interaction between baseline Conceptual-Semantic Impairment and the Treatment Condition (Lexical vs. Semantic) was significant for verb Prophylaxis items at 3 and 18 Months, and it was significant for noun Prophylaxis items at 14 and 18 Months. Conclusions: The pattern of results suggested that individuals who have modality-general conceptual-semantic impairment at baseline are more likely to benefit from lexical treatment, while individuals who have unimpaired conceptual-semantic processing at baseline are more likely to benefit from semantic treatment as the disorder progresses. In contrast to conceptual-semantic impairment, diagnostic subtype did not typically predict the treatment effects.
Introduction. Today, in the modern Ukrainian literary language, colloquial speech is a source of active use of words, forms and syntactic constructions. This is accompanied by the destruction of standard schemes that organize the structure of the sentence. As a result, new, not similar to traditional, actualized types of expression, built on the phenomena of syntactic redistribution, separation of some components, etc., appear. Thanks to the dismemberment of a typical sentence, variations of different lexical-semantic nuances of meanings that arise as a result of figurative and aesthetic concretization and individualization of content sections become possible. It has been observed that one of the urgent problems of modern linguistic research is the specificity of functioning in the artistic text of incomplete sentences, which are traditionally interpreted as deviations from the norm with one or more members missing, which can be implied from the context or speech situation. The study of sentence syntax is extremely relevant, as it helps to learn the forms of organization of extended constructions, features of the structure of statements and the text. It was found that the structural incompleteness of the sentences is stylistically motivated. The greater semantic and stylistic load of other elements of this sentence and the general expression of the syntactic structure compensates the special omission of any element in the composition of the sentence. Therefore, introducing an incomplete sentence into the text, the author focuses attention on the semantic and stylistic direction of the sentence or its individual places. It is proved that incomplete sentences are a peculiar phenomenon of the modern Ukrainian language with stable functional and stylistic parameters. They are one of the most characteristic features of colloquial speech and are often used by writers precisely for the purpose of stylization, among which is the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo, a master of the Ukrainian word among Ukrainian writers of the 1960s, a poet, novelist and publicist. The original and genre-stylistic diverse work of the Ukrainian writer Yevhen Hutsalo has been of interest to researchers of different generations for more than one decade. The artist's creativity is quite difficult to perceive if the reader is not able to read between the lines the real idea skillfully hidden under ordinary words. Yevhen Hutsalo’s linguistic skill is in creating new and using already known linguistic means in semantic and grammatical directions uncharacteristic for them. It was found that expressive constructions expressed by incomplete sentences require special attention. Purpose. The purpose of the research is to determine the features of the incomplete sentence as a means of expressive syntax, to find out the varieties and specificity, the frequency of their functioning in the prose language for children by Yevhen Hutsalo. Working with the article, we outlined the following tasks: to investigate the semantic and syntactic organization of an incomplete sentence; to analyze the structural and semantic features of an incomplete sentence based on the material of Yevhen Hutsalo’s works for children; to determine the frequency of use of incomplete sentences in Yevhen Hutsalo's prose works for children compared to complete structures using the example of the story "Denysko"; to indicate the expressive potential of incomplete syntactic units, which is achieved with the help of such sentences in the writer's artistic text. Methods. The article uses the methods of analysis of linguistic phenomena, thanks to which the theoretical foundations of the study of the problem of incomplete sentences are summarized and specified, the terminological definitions of the phenomena of incomplete sentences are analyzed, commented on and distinguished. The method of statistical analysis of incomplete sentences in the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo was used. Results. The frequency of use of incomplete sentences in the language of prose for children by Yevhen Hutsalo is summarized. Incomplete sentences with the omission of the subject were found to be the most frequent, the less frequently used circumstances were incomplete structures with the omission of the predicate, very few were sentences with a non-verbal object. Originality. Incomplete sentences are an integral element of the structure of an artistic text. The extent of the load carried by incomplete sentences in the artistic texts of the language of works for children, the frequency of their use in the ideal style of the famous Ukrainian writer Yevhen Hutsalo has not yet been the object of close attention of researchers, therefore the consideration of such incomplete structures is quite relevant. Conclusion. Incomplete sentences are a separate structural and semantic type of syntactic constructions, which has all the categories and features of a sentence, so they should not be considered as “insufficient” units, etc. The specificity of incomplete sentences is insufficiently studied both in theory and in practical implementation in speech. We see the perspective of the research in the further analysis of the actual material and in-depth study of the features of such units of expressive syntax in various texts of artistic style.
Imagine a classroom discussion of Lawrence v. Texas, the U.S. Supreme Court's landmark decision holding sodomy laws unconstitutional.1 One student argues that the Court's ruling was correct because a state may not base its criminal laws on bare moral disapproval. Another student picks up on Justice Scalia's dissenting opinion and responds that, if that principle were sound, polygamy and bestiality would also be immune from punishment.2 A third student chimes in to observe that those comparisons are offensive, even harmful, and urges or intimates that the second should apologize. What should happen next? One natural thought is that it depends on whether the offense that the third student took (or supposed others would take) is justified. That is evidently what Justice Scalia himself thought: faced with an openly gay student's similar request for an apology, Scalia rebuked the questioner for failing to grasp the reductio argument that he had actually made.3 Insofar as Scalia had “compared” same-sex intercourse and bestiality, after all, he claimed only that bans on these practices are alike by the lights of the principle that the Court invoked to invalidate sodomy laws. As Scalia correctly observed, that claim really has nothing to do with whether same-sex intercourse is morally tantamount to bestiality at all. Yet I suspect many will share my instinct that this point of logic is not all that matters, from a moral point of view, in the kind of encounter that I have described. For if many people confronted with Scalia's analogical argument will foreseeably take its expression as implying a moral equivalence between same-sex intercourse and bestiality—or, more simply, as an anti-gay insult—that fact alone seems to bear on whether, or at least how, one should voice the argument. And insofar as Scalia or the second student in our imagined dialogue predictably caused gay audience members to think they were being insulted (even, in a sense, mistakenly), and did so without good reason, taking offense at that behavior—under that revised description—could well be warranted after all. In a sense, the listener's interpretation, which starts off foreseeable but mistaken, seems to bounce off of the speaker and return to the listener vindicated in the end.4 This line of thought might suggest that the second student did act wrongly and should indeed apologize. But that is not a comfortable result either. Treating the student's mere invocation of the analogical argument as an insult will tend to ratify the misunderstanding of what they actually said, to discourage the expression of other ideas that could also be misunderstood, and to raise the overall “symbolic temperature” within the community.5 Indeed, a general practice of validating reactions such as the third student's here could well result in gay students facing more, rather than fewer, comments that they rightly take as offensive—at least in a belief- or evidence-relative sense of rightness—and thus leave them only worse off. So, again, what should the characters in this story do? I am tempted to say that, if you think the answer is obvious, one of us is missing something important. Of course, my real topic is not this vignette, but the formidable genre of moral and political disputes of which it is a characteristic if stylized example.6 Roughly speaking, that genre involves claims (1) in the normative register of respect and offense that are (2) linked to membership in a presently or historically subordinated social group and (3) occasioned by symbolic or expressive items or acts (flags, monuments, mascots, pronouns, analogies, tweets, “tropes,” and the like). Any descriptive account of our public discourse respecting matters of social equality today would have to give these claims a prominent place. In part because they are now so politicized, however, they can be exceptionally difficult to parse and evaluate on their own terms. In fact, it can be difficult to say anything at all about them without seeming to enlist on one or another side of a sharp conflict whose battle lines are already set.7 And yet I do not see how we could make sense of this important domain, or navigate conscientiously within it, without engaging both sympathetically and critically with efforts to recognize and redress claims of identity-related offense or dignitary harm. The premise of this essay is that we might find it easier to do that if we reframe the problems of identity-related offense in a somewhat broader perspective. Viewed abstractly, these cases pose a more general set of issues relating to the formulation, operation, and enforcement of conventions for communicating attitudes of respect and disrespect for other people. As several philosophers have recognized, such conventions form the substance of codes of etiquette, manners, or politeness; in social life writ large, we negotiate them constantly and rely upon them to meet a variety of essentially communicative obligations to one another. What is at work in encounters such as the classroom discussion that I just sketched, I will suggest here, is a communicative apparatus of the same fundamental kind—an “etiquette of equality” that specifies what the public expression of certain broadly egalitarian attitudes, in particular, shall be taken to require and forbid. Understanding the problem in those terms clarifies the valuable functions that the norms at issue may serve and makes it easy to see why, even though these norms may be quite arbitrary in content, they have real moral weight.8 At the same time, this account casts in sharp relief the costs to which the same normative system can give rise, including by the lights of what seem its worthiest aims. By demanding ever-greater investments in the communicative dimensions of respect, the etiquette of equality threatens to divert us from, or even impede, the ambition of constructing a social order in which all are actually treated as equals. With these ends in view, I begin in Sections II and III by sketching the moral functions of conventions of etiquette or politeness in general and of the etiquette of equality in particular. In Sections IV through VI, I then proceed to unpack three problematic, interconnected features of this distinctive etiquette regime: (1) the costly and potentially self-defeating overdetermination of relevant signals; (2) a recursive tendency toward inflation in respect's demands; and (3) a related set of incentives for testing, and then affirming, a group's status through the assertion and remediation of offense. Taken together, I suggest, these add up to a powerful indictment of the etiquette of equality as practiced today—but one fully consistent with recognizing the value of its aspirations and even the genuine normative force of its demands. I then conclude in Section VII by reflecting on the dilemma with which this indictment leaves us. In short, there may often be a powerful moral case for each of us as individuals to act in ways that our community's operative respect norms demand, even if we believe both that the norms themselves are in need of reform and that our collective observance of them harmfully fuels and entrenches them. The reason is that, for the most part, our individual choices simply have too little effect on what the norms will be in the future to outweigh the immediate effects that those same choices have in light of what the norms already are. I doubt that this predicament has any fully satisfactory solution. But I think it counsels an ambivalence about the etiquette of equality that neither its enthusiasts nor its critics have tended to cultivate or express, and I think there is some reason to hope that expressing and thereby normalizing such ambivalence might itself go some way toward reconciling our conflicting obligations in this domain. Let me start with a claim that I hope will be uncontroversial: people have an important interest in others' recognition of their status as equal members of the communities that structure their lives. The full satisfaction of this interest, moreover, requires not only that others in fact hold certain attitudes, but that a person be made aware of others' regard as well.9 That second, public or communicative dimension of the interest in recognition will prove especially important here, so we should pause at the outset to take stock of its grounds and weight. Two principal bases for the value of knowing of others' respect suggest themselves. First, the epistemic pillars of a person's self-respect could well erode without reason to believe that others consider them respect-worthy as well.10 Second, and in any event, the assurance of others' respect is often essential if a person is to enjoy genuine opportunities to share in the benefits of social cooperation. The litany of indignities and anxieties recounted in Martin Luther King, Jr.'s “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” makes both of these points vivid. Black people in the Jim Crow South, King explained, were “forever fighting a degenerating sense of ‘nobodiness’” engendered by others' withholding of the usual signs of respect.11 Meanwhile, the same lack of assurance about their standing in the eyes of others consigned them to “living constantly at tiptoe stance, never quite knowing what to expect next,” be it a denial of a needed service, a public humiliation, or outright violence.12 The conditions that King described were extreme, of course, but the underlying concerns here apply more generally. If a community is to support its members' self-respect and warrant them in incurring the vulnerabilities inherent in social intercourse, it will have to make mutual respect a salient element of the publicly recognized common ground.13 But how can that collective, communicative obligation be discharged? Ideally, we would want some coordinated social practice that makes the signaling of mutual regard routine, manageable, and predictable. Such a practice should afford ample occasions for communicating the relevant assurances about our own attitudes—so that, in Jeremy Waldron's phrase, each of us is “visibly impressed by signs of one another's commitment” to respecting our dignity.14 But at the same time, a suitable practice should allow us to express these attitudes en passant, without constantly derailing the purposive activities that bring us into contact with one another in the first place. What we would want, in other words, is a “recognized social currency that symbolically operates as thoughtfulness but simultaneously alleviates its strains.”15 As several philosophers have observed, “etiquette,” in the sense of conventional rules of politeness or courtesy, is the social practice that best answers to this description.16 I hasten to add that not everything that goes by that name is squarely relevant here.17 But many etiquette norms (and by many estimations, the most important ones) are concerned precisely with the routinized expression of attitudes toward other people. We have norms about the appropriate manner and occasions for expressing gratitude and deference, about what to say in case of an interruption or collision, about how to issue commands and make requests, about greetings, even about where we direct our gaze—and, of course, about much more besides.18 As Sarah Buss observes, the combined effect of all of these norms is to ensure that there are “many occasions on which there is something rather particular people must be sure to do in order to be polite to one another.”19 And in placing these demands on us, the norms thus give us many opportunities for, “in effect, saying ‘I respect you,’ ‘I acknowledge your dignity,’”20 through the simple act of complying. As long as certain behaviors are generally understood as appropriate when it comes to persons owed respect, after all, we can express respect for someone simply by visibly including them within the class of beings to whom we evidently take those standard-issue obligations to run. We are thus relieved of the practical burdens and game-theoretic conjectures that successfully communicating appropriate attitudes to a host of other people, each perhaps with their own beliefs about how respectful people tend to behave, could otherwise demand of us. At the same time, threading these practices through our interactions can serve to inculcate the very attitudes that we are being enjoined to express, as well as the more general sensitivity to the perceptions and interests of others that underwrites the injunction to publicly express them.21 The price of enjoying these opportunities for signaling respect through politeness, of course, is that we will also signal something when we fail to use them. In particular, omitting some standard respect-communicating performance, and especially seeming to do so purposely, will naturally bear the opposite meaning—not because the forgone behavior is beneficial in itself, but because of the valued message that is being withheld, and thereby inverted. This is why refusing to address Black people with standard honorifics, such as “the respected title ‘Mrs.,’” was one of the routinized forms of insult that King described.22 Or for a more pedestrian example, consider someone who wears bright, colorful clothes to a typical American funeral.23 Why is that disrespectful of the bereaved family? The core of the answer is simply that a prevailing convention makes wearing dark clothes at a funeral a means of expressing sadness or showing respect for those mourning the death. That convention allows people to express fitting attitudes, and in so doing, it inevitably creates opportunities (if one can call them that) for communicating opposite signals, through nonconformity, as well.24 We can now turn squarely to the thesis that ordinary etiquette, understood along the lines that I have just sketched, offers a valuable paradigm for understanding the problems of identity-related offense with which I began. The gist of that comparison will now be clear: in both contexts, we are concerned with the attitudes toward others that a person's behavior shows by the lights of some set of semiotic conventions, and with the moral implications that those meanings then have in light of (among other things) the interest in one another's recognition that I highlighted a moment ago. But in order to build out a more nuanced account of how the conventions of interest here function, it will help to start by considering the paradigm case of slur words specifically. If there is a distinctive etiquette of equality, after all, using a slur for a subordinated group would seem the quintessential violation of it—much as employing certain vulgarities would represent a paradigmatic violation of etiquette generally. And because I find Geoff Nunberg's recent account of the pragmatics of slurs particularly illuminating, I will use it to cast light on a wider class of identity-related affronts that appear to work in a similar way.25 Nunberg's view, in short, is that there is no difference in semantic content between slur words and their neutral counterparts (e.g., between “redskin” and “Indian”)—just as there is no such difference between “ain't” and “isn't,” or between “pulchritude” and “beauty.”26 Rather, the important differences within each of these pairs lie in the sorts of features that a dictionary would mark with labels alongside a definition: tags such as offensive, formal, slang, archaic, and the like. These bits of “lexical metadata” capture sociolinguistic facts—facts about who uses the words at issue, or the discourses to which they belong, not about what the words themselves mean.27 The special effect of any given person's using a slur is then achieved through a kind of “‘affiliatory’ speech act”: the speaker signals or declares, through their use of one term rather than another, membership in or solidarity with the community whose word of choice it already is.28 Thus, as Nunberg sums up his view, “racists don't use slurs because they're derogative; slurs are derogative because they're the words that racists use.”29 This analysis directly and convincingly explains the mechanism of offense in one familiar class of cases. Suppose, for instance, that I describe Obergefell v. Hodges to students as the case in which the Supreme Court recognized a right to of them would be by that even though their would have taken the same as essentially a neutral not long ago. Why is the words and may be but was the word within a particular and my choice to from the word in my community in of that would signal a to or with the prevailing attitudes of that rather than those of my toward the at In other words, my word choice would what Nunberg a would thus take offense at my word choice because they would take it as a or that I gay people with the And their might well warrant that on their part, even though the same from the same at some would have This is a good but the to the etiquette of equality is recognizing that we can the same fundamental analysis well matters of word as an dictionary might now with or offensive, I want to suggest, we all with a kind of that similar not only to words, but to other items as the reductio argument for the of sodomy laws with which I began. If same-sex intercourse to the very sense of that the are alike by the lights of some offensive, it seems to be so in much the same way that using the word now At least in the of that the speech act of this is itself an in the relevant sociolinguistic in effect, it is as If slurs are the words that racists we might then comparisons are the comparisons that In fact, some and now or that make this quite to the content they are to These can be understood as etiquette more in than in from those by Martin or simultaneously describe and the with particular with a to the of respectful attitudes and the of offense within a particular domain. What and the etiquette of equality, at least as I the is thus the set of attitudes whose expression it the particular that it just how to or the attitudes that this is not obvious, and the of the “etiquette of equality” will not be without such an my choice to as the a certain point of and would be natural of the relevant of attitudes, for example, that these lack the general of the relevant are to make the a and I will take the as a First, there are derogative attitudes and with particular subordinated social and the etiquette of equality specifies how to expressing or those attitudes or Second, much as not only can offense but also can the etiquette of equality specifies how to signal of the same disrespectful of the conditions with which they are makes sense that we would have a set of conventions to these a of and it would be to rely on the etiquette of and alone to meet the communicative obligations in Section people have particular for about their more of respect will be needed to the same of So, for example, norms that particular terms as respectful valuable occasions for respect for members of the for so when their group membership is some of expression is already often linked to an moreover, norms that this can discourage the relevant behavior and members of subordinated of some of the that they otherwise when it And both of these a with the functions of etiquette writ by etiquette such norms are also to as of efforts to our thought and in other The reason for might be that simple us to for instance, but one effect of efforts to our practices has to the use of on account of its sociolinguistic This of the etiquette of equality casts it, etiquette in a broadly A system for respect for members of subordinated and signaling seems a natural to a social in which such respect be taken for And we the issue that it seems that those who at norms on the that they are or that there is nothing disrespectful about to “the or where a person of is from, and so often just missing the is nothing about wearing to a funeral but you do If an etiquette to communicating respect for members of subordinated a of etiquette in it be simply for as other codes of etiquette if one the value of these moreover, that is no more a moral for without regard for and of in this than in any And yet it seems that the of this etiquette and the to it are also our practices for communicating respect, and the broader communicative we in ways that can be at that costs alongside their costs are to be if those of us in ways in these lack a sense of what is the of the and the variety of I any to But the three I will turn to three such that seem particularly important and to out some of the characteristic of of our ordinary etiquette as the of saying and for their and very these conventions are so if they lack what Nunberg a a social group whose recognizing a common in a for some or on a convention that they are then taken to That is part of the reason that the observance of these norms generally anything the bare respect that Buss as the special of act as our most familiar politeness conventions is to at one of “the The etiquette of equality is in this state the obvious, the people most in their expression with special of the standing of members of subordinated are not an of And the and norms on which they are thus inevitably by that and political Indeed, this seems to how those practices serve their communicative as slurs by the conventions of many of the practices seem to respect in a by the conventions prevailing who have these with their own attitudes toward the at If “the of is by the interests and of the communities that and own as Nunberg then we should expect the same to be of what we might call or word such as the that serve to give those with egalitarian their own distinctive for about the same of politeness, use of these etiquette conventions a social membership perhaps But in light of the and of the social that this domain, it seems that people will often have of just who the of what attitudes those people or of which of their attitudes are to any given one of as to to the of a person's choice to As a people will also have of the with which the relevant speech act a own Indeed, even one recognizing that all of the just matters of will take such an act of to of The of all this is that the of the relevant in the sense of the attitudes a person is taken to express by it, will often be By way of consider wearing a in the symbolic act whose is I in much the same At one wearing the is naturally taken simply to express or to the That is the of that most the semantic content of a of the behavior by the operative own Yet it is a social fact that those who use that particular to express that content today tend also to hold a particular, of what demands. For me to the could thus about my on any of I the of in that I of the who have taken to the and so who that I moreover, may take my choice not only as of these other but as an on my part to signal them. So, if I do not want to or these that me a reason for the if I a of and would all to express it in this that reason wearing the has force even if rightly not actually any of these even if my audience not think that it and even if many who by that to express as such and nothing most this reason for the its force even if my so might itself to light of their own of the relevant a lack of on my In that event, I will find in an expressive and I will simply have to the in the at of the ways of being of the practices by the etiquette of equality are to their salient but in the same they may be and out by some as and signals of ways of the equal standing of members of subordinated of
Shin (2022) argues that research on heritage language development in children can profit greatly by incorporating insights from Variationist Sociolinguistics. In particular, attention should be paid to structured variation so as to advance our understanding of heritage language development, which in turn can help us move beyond a deficit view of bilingualism. This teaching and learning guide accompanies Shin's (2022) article, and includes an annotated bibliography consisting of 10 relevant articles, a description of four websites to consult, and five sample lesson plans with student learning outcomes and activities to implement with students. Shin, Naomi & Karen Miller. 2022. Children's acquisition of morphosyntactic variation. Language Learning and Development, 18(2), 125–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/15475441.2021.1941031 In this theoretical keynote article, Shin and Miller outline propose a 4-step developmental pathway for children's acquisition of morphosyntactic variation. The article reviews the concept of structured variation and considers factors related to the input children receive as well as child-internal learning tendencies that shape how children learn variation. The keynote article is accompanied by seven commentaries by scholars of child language acquisition and a response by Shin and Miller. Smith, Jennifer & Mercedes Durham. 2019. Sociolinguistic variation in children's language. Acquiring community norms. Cambridge University Press. This book covers extensive empirical research on 29 children and their caregivers in Buckie, Scotland. The children's ages ranged from ages 2;10 to 4;2. The book covers lexical, lexical-phonological, phonetic, and morphosyntactic variation. Chapter 8 provides a synthesis of the main findings. For example, they note that in cases where caregivers were aware of the variation, they tended to use more standard forms with children than when speaking to other adults; for many variables, the children closely matched the caregivers' patterns; and some variable forms were acquired sequentially, while others were acquired simultaneously. Requena, Pablo. 2022. Variation versus deviation: Early bilingual acquisition of Spanish differential object marking. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.21001.req Requena's empirical study of bilingual children's Spanish differential object marking takes into account variation related to animacy (human vs. animal). He finds, contra previous research, that bilingual children's (including child heritage speakers) rates of differential object marking are in fact similar to those of monolingual children. Shin, Naomi, Pablo Requena & Anita Kemp. 2017. Bilingual and monolingual children's patterns of syntactic variation: Variable clitic placement in Spanish. In A. Auza & R. Schwartz (Eds.), Language development and disorders in Spanish-speaking children (pp. 63–88). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53646-0 In this empirical study, Shin et al. analyse variable clitic placement (la quiero ver ∼ quiero verla) in the speech of Spanish-speaking children and adults in the U.S. and in Mexico. By taking into account the finite verb lexeme, they find that the usage patterns are similar across children and adults and across monolingual and bilingual communities. Shin, Naomi. 2022. Está abriendo, la abrió: Lexical knowledge, verb type and grammatical aspect shape child heritage speakers' direct object omission in Spanish. International Journal of Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069221124475 Available via Open Access. While previous research has shown that bilingual children omit more direct objects than monolingual children, this empirical study reveals important systematicities in Spanish-English bilingual children's omission patterns. Studying child heritage speakers' grammars in their own right paves the way for a deeper understanding of the systematic nature of the developing heritage grammar. In particular, Shin analyses 61 child heritage speakers' direct object omission in responses to an elicited production task, and finds that the children's omission patterns are guided by progressive aspect and verb type, thus revealing an intricate and nuanced developmental pathway. Shin, Naomi, Alejandro Cuza & Liliana Sánchez. 2023. Structured variation, language experience, and crosslinguistic influence shape child heritage speakers' Spanish direct objects. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 26(2), 317–329. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728922000694. Available via Open Access. This empirical study investigates the direct objects produced by 40 child heritage speakers of Spanish in the U.S. and 24 monolingual children in Mexico. The study focuses on the effects of structured variation, in particular the influence of animacy on direct object type and direct object clitic gender, and finds that animacy shapes direct object usage among both groups of speakers. This is particularly relevant since it addresses the tendency to overestimate differences between heritage and monolingual speakers. In addition, the study uncovers some interesting usage patterns that would go unnoticed without careful attention to structured variation. Giancaspro, David, Silvia Pérez-Cortes, S., & Josh Higdon, J. (2022). (Ir)regular mood swings: Lexical variability in heritage speakers' oral production of subjunctive mood. Language Learning, 72(2), 456–496. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12489 This article presents an empirical study in which the authors find that morphological regularity mediates heritage speakers' production of the Spanish subjunctive and indicative verb forms. The authors argue that increased attention to intra-speaker variation is crucial for our understanding of heritage languages. Otheguy, Ricardo. 2016. The linguistic competence of second-generation bilinguals. A critique of “incomplete acquisition”. In C. Tortora, M. den Dikken, I. Montoya, & T. O'Neill (Eds.), Romance linguistics 2013. Selected papers from the 43rd linguistic symposium on Romance languages (LSRL) (pp. 301–319). John Benjamins. In this overview article Otheguy argues that the grammars of second-generation bilinguals (often called heritage speakers) should not be viewed as incomplete but instead as intact grammars that diverge from their input due to normal intergenerational language transmission in situations of language contact. The author criticises the use of monolingual controls for analyses of bilingual grammars as well as the very notion of incomplete acquisition. De Houwer, Annick. 2022. The danger of bilingual–monolingual comparisons in applied psycholinguistic research. Applied Psycholinguistics doi: 10.1017/S014271642200042X This overview article, published shortly after Shin's article in Language and Linguistics Compass was published, is an excellent accompaniment to Otheguy's (2016) article. De Houwer argues that relying on monolingual children as a comparison group for research on bilingual children's language development promotes a deficit view of bilingualism and threatens the well-being of bilingual children. She argues that studying bilingual children's grammars in their own right can help ‘inform educators, policy makers, and language and speech professionals’ and ‘will hopefully contribute to the well-being’ of bilingual children. Forrest, Aster. 2022. Rethinking difference: How bilingualism research helps us combat linguistic bias. Soleado Newsletter (pp. 1, 8–9). Dual Language Education of New Mexico. Access here: https://lobolanguage.unm.edu/publications/rethinkingdifference_sept2022_soleado.pdf This article, written for teachers, reviews how research on bilingual children's grammars can help us move beyond the monolingual bias that pervades our educational systems and ultimately combat the deficit view of bilingualism. The article reviews common myths about bilingualism and language variation and explains how particular language varieties become stigmatised in societies. The article then focuses on research on child heritage speakers of Spanish in the U.S. and discusses how input shapes grammatical development. And while the research shows that bilingual children's grammars may differ from those of monolingual children, the author stresses that difference is not the same as delay. This site, produced by the Lobo Language Acquisition Lab at the University of New Mexico, aims to promote bilingualism and minority language acquisition in New Mexico. The site includes resources, information about events, and a link to an online linguistic bias training module (https://bilingualism.unm.edu/resources/linguistic-bias-training.html). This site of the Harmonious Bilingualism Network aims to support research on bilingual development and to make sure that findings are disseminated to both researchers and communities. The site includes links to findings from scientific research as well as resources for families. The Bilingualism Matters site includes resources and information about bilingualism for researchers and communities. Bilingualism Matters has branches in the U.S., numerous European countries, and Israel. The National Heritage Language Resource Center, housed in UCLA, provides information and resources about research and teaching heritage languages. Student learning outcomes: Students will define structured variation and will provide examples of structured variation that are not described in detail in Shin (2022). The following questions can be given as homework or in-class work to be completed in groups or by individuals. 1a.1 Subject-level factor: __________ 1a.2 Verb-level factor: ___________ 1a.3 Discourse-level factor: _____________ Example 1 from Shin (2022) …primero vino aquí mi hermano…y, y luego yo porque yo nací hasta el último. Ø Tengo dos hermanos. ‘…first my brother came here…and, and later I because I was born last. (I) have two brothers’. Me gustan [las películas] un chorro y me interesa más que nada el cine alternativo, o sea, el cine experimental, filmes independientes y …. quiero llevar a mi novio! Porque él es muy Hollywood Production. O sea, sí Ø es bueno porque Ø escoge muy buenas películas, Ø tiene buen gusto. I like the movies a lot and alternative film interests me especially, I mean, experimental film, independent films and… (I) want to bring my boyfriend! Because he is very Hollywood Production. I mean, (he) is good because (he) chooses very good films, (he) has good taste. 1d. How does Shin 2022 define structured variation? Why is the word ‘structured’ important here? 1e. True or false: There has been more research on structured variation in child language than in adult language. 1f. True or false: There has been more research on structured variation in monolingual child language than in bilingual child language. 1g. Insert the correct term for each example Slide 1—introduce the phenomenon with examples Slide 2—present the authors and article title selected Slide 3—brief overview of a few methodological points: Where do the data come from? Were there any contexts that were considered categorical rather than variable and thus excluded? If so, list one or two such exclusions. Slide 4: List 2-3 factors that the authors coded with examples illustrating the coding. Slide 5: Present the results for these 2-3 factors (which ones promoted variant x? variant y?). Slide 6: Conclusions—how does the phenomenon illustrate the concept of structured variation? Expression versus omission of complementiser that. Consult Torres Cacoullos & Walker (2009) On the persistence of grammar in discourse formulas: a variationist study of that. Linguistics 47–1 (2009), 1–43 DOI 10.1515/LING.2009.001 Variation between 'is' and 'are' with plural subjects. Consult Smith, J., & Durham, M. (2019). Sociolinguistic variation in children's language. Acquiring community norms. Cambridge University Press. Dequeísmo in Spanish. Consult Potowski & Shin (2019); Schwenter, S. 1999. Evidentiality in Spanish Morphosyntax: A Reanalysis of (de)queísmo. In M.J. Serrano (ed). Estudios de la variación sintáctica. Madrid: Vervuert/Iberoamericana, 65–87. Kanwit, M. 2015. The Role of Discourse Topic in Evidentiality Marking: Variable (De)queísmo in Caracas. eHumanista/IVITRA 8: 446–470. 'Se lo' versus 'se los' to refer to singular direct objects in Spanish. Consult Schwenter & Hoff. 2021. Variable constraints on se lo(s) in Mexican Spanish. In M. Díaz-Campos & S. Sessarego (Eds.), Aspects of Latin American Dialectology. In honor of Terrell A. Morgan, 47–68. John Benjamins. Student learning outcomes: Students will explore definitions of heritage speakers and discuss language attitudes and language ideologies and how these relate to perceptions of heritage speakers' language abilities. https://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/Who-is-a-Heritage-Language-Learner.pdf Sanchez-Munoz, Ana. (2016). Heritage language healing? Learners' attitudes and damage control in a heritage language classroom. 10.1075/sibil.49.11san. Tseng, A. (2021). ‘Qué barbaridad, son latinos y deberían saber español primero’: Language ideology, agency, and heritage language insecurity across immigrant generations. Applied Linguistics, 42(1), 113–135. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amaa004 What are some defining characteristics of heritage speakers? Are you a heritage speaker? Do you know any heritage speakers? What are some examples of heritage speakers? How do their experiences compare to each other? How do they differ? How do heritage speakers feel about their heritage language abilities? What factors contribute to how they feel about their language abilities? How are heritage speakers' language abilities viewed by society? What factors shape those views? Shin writes that ‘a deficit view [of child heritage speakers' grammars] can lead to children being told that the way they talk is wrong, which in turn can lead to linguistic insecurity and ultimately an unwillingness to speak the heritage language’. Do you agree? Do you know of any examples that illustrate this phenomenon? Student learning outcomes: Students will present summaries of empirical research that compares monolingual and bilingual children's grammars. Students will debate whether the findings show that the two groups are similar or different, and will discuss how structured variation plays a role in conclusions reached. Shin reviews research on bilingual Spanish-speaking children's differential object marking, variable clitic placement and subject pronoun expression to demonstrate that investigating structured variation helps us to avoid overestimations of differences between monolingual children and child heritage speakers. Divide the class into two groups in order to compare conclusions reached when structured variation is an important focus of the research versus when it is not. Then hold a debate between the two groups answering the question: ‘Do child heritage speakers differ from monolingual children in their production of x feature?’ There are various ways to do this. One option is to focus on one structure only (e.g., differential object marking). Another option is to focus on multiple structures all in one debate. Slide 1: Name of article and author (include author's picture if found on the Internet) Slide 2: Example of linguistic structure examined (e.g., example of differential object marking) Slide 3: Participants in study Slide 4: Methods (experiment? Naturalistic data?) Slide 5: Main findings from study Slide 6: Conclusion Group 1—Difference. Read: Ticio, E. 2015. Differential object marking in Spanish-English early bilinguals. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 5(1), 62–90. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.5.1.03tic Group 2—No difference. Read Requena 2022. Variation versus deviation: Early bilingual acquisition of Spanish differential object marking. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.21001.req Group 1—Difference. Read Pérez-Leroux, A. T., Cuza, A., & Thomas, D. (2011). Clitic placement in Spanish–English bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14(2), 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728910000234 Group 2—No difference. Read Shin, N., Requena, P., & Kemp, A. (2017). Bilingual and monolingual children's patterns of syntactic variation: Variable clitic placement in Spanish. In A. Auza & R. Schwartz (Eds.), Language development and disorders in Spanish-speaking children (pp. 63–88). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53646-0 Group 1—Difference. Montrul, S., & Sánchez-Walker, N. (2015). Subject expression in bilingual school-age children in the United States. In A. M. Carvalho, R. Orozco, & N. Shin (Eds.), Spanish subject pronoun expression in Spanish: A cross-dialectical perspective (pp. 231–247). Georgetown University Press. Group 2—No difference. Shin, N., & Van Buren, J. (2016). Maintenance of Spanish subject pronoun expression patterns among bilingual children of farmworkers in Spanish in Slide 1: to differential object marking Slide 2: of study of differential object marking Slide 3: to variable clitic placement Slide 4: of study of variable clitic placement Slide 5: to subject pronoun expression Slide 6: of study of subject pronoun expression Slide Differential object Ticio, E. (2015). Differential object marking in Spanish-English early bilinguals. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 5(1), 62–90. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.5.1.03tic Variable clitic Pérez-Leroux, A. T., Cuza, A., & Thomas, D. (2011). Clitic placement in Spanish–English bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14(2), 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728910000234 Subject pronoun Montrul, S., & Sánchez-Walker, N. (2015). Subject expression in bilingual school-age children in the United States. In A. M. Carvalho, R. Orozco, & N. Shin (Eds.), Spanish subject pronoun expression in Spanish: A cross-dialectical perspective (pp. 231–247). Georgetown University Press. Differential object Requena 2022. Variation versus deviation: Early bilingual acquisition of Spanish differential object marking. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.21001.req Variable clitic between Shin, N., Requena, P., & Kemp, A. (2017). Bilingual and monolingual children's patterns of syntactic variation: Variable clitic placement in Spanish. In A. Auza & R. Schwartz (Eds.), Language development and disorders in Spanish-speaking children (pp. 63–88). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53646-0 Subject pronoun Shin, N., & Van Buren, J. (2016). Maintenance of Spanish subject pronoun expression patterns among bilingual children of farmworkers in Spanish in groups to discuss questions they want to to the other should any in the research and can for information more information about The lesson can with a about the and of the various and for research. work rather than group work for an online Students an whether child heritage speakers differ from monolingual children for the structures are to on the Students are to about whether child heritage speakers differ from monolingual children. There can be for each are given for responses that on the Students to at Student learning outcomes: Students will factors that contribute to direct object omission and direct object clitic in Spanish. Students will discuss how analyses of structured variation advance our understanding of child heritage speakers' developing grammars. Shin argues that studying patterns of structured variation helps the She focuses on direct object omission and direct object clitic in Spanish to make this the of this lesson should show a understanding of the grammatical patterns and how they illustrate in the children's grammars. In each other to the following and then discuss some than What do with the She What is with the She is What do with the She What is with the Shin found that child heritage speakers of Spanish more direct objects with that without direct objects among Spanish-speaking This that the children were to omit with which or Shin found that child heritage speakers of Spanish more direct objects with in the progressive This that the children were to omit in the a or contexts from Why do the children omit more with progressive Consult the following article to find Shin as an and the in Shin, Naomi. 2022. Está abriendo, la abrió: Lexical knowledge, verb type and grammatical aspect shape child heritage speakers' direct object omission in Spanish. International Journal of Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069221124475 Available via Open Access. How does the of the progressive illustrate the of structured variation in child heritage speakers' Shin et al. argue that bilingual children's are not they more in What are those Shin et al. found that some children such as the clitic to the subject rather than the direct How children these What of would children to a that is but Do you these can in monolingual How does Shin et study illustrate the of structured variation in child heritage speakers' Student learning outcomes: Students will the of research on structured variation for children, teachers, and A., C. & A. (2011). of Spanish and competence and in children of in International Journal of of De Houwer, Annick. 2022. The danger of bilingual–monolingual comparisons in applied psycholinguistic research. Applied Psycholinguistics Forrest, Aster. 2022. Rethinking difference: How bilingualism research helps us combat linguistic bias. Soleado Newsletter (pp. 1, 8–9). Dual Language Education of New Mexico. Available here: https://lobolanguage.unm.edu/publications/rethinkingdifference_sept2022_soleado.pdf (2017). The language Access here: Otheguy, Ricardo. 2016. The linguistic competence of second-generation bilinguals. A critique of “incomplete acquisition”. In C. Tortora, M. den Dikken, I. Montoya, & T. O'Neill (Eds.), Romance linguistics 2013. Selected papers from the 43rd linguistic symposium on Romance languages (LSRL) (pp. 301–319). John argue that there is a deficit view of bilingualism and a monolingual bias in many societies. What are some examples of this bias and how it and educational What are some of the of Do you that research can help us move beyond monolingual and a deficit view of Do you with Shin that patterns of variation help us move beyond a deficit view of heritage Why In order to make research to children, teachers, and that relevant research findings are with Consult the websites in the online as well as and (2022) and how some researchers are to beyond What are some other ways can Naomi Shin is in the of Linguistics and the of Spanish & at the University of New Mexico. She Lobo Language Acquisition which is in research on children's acquisition of minority languages and community bilingualism in New Mexico. Shin's interests child language and research focuses on patterns of morphosyntactic variation, how these patterns are acquired and how they in situations of language contact. She has a to teaching Spanish which in the
Detecting offensive language is a challenging task. Generalizing across different cultures and languages becomes even more challenging: besides lexical, syntactic and semantic differences, pragmatic aspects such as cultural norms and sensitivities, which are particularly relevant in this context, vary greatly. In this paper, we target Chinese offensive language detection and aim to investigate the impact of transfer learning using offensive language detection data from different cultural backgrounds, specifically Korean and English. We find that culture-specific biases in what is considered offensive negatively impact the transferability of language models (LMs) and that LMs trained on diverse cultural data are sensitive to different features in Chinese offensive language detection. In a few-shot learning scenario, however, our study shows promising prospects for non-English offensive language detection with limited resources. Our findings highlight the importance of cross-cultural transfer learning in improving offensive language detection and promoting inclusive digital spaces.
Emily Dickinson is one of the most outstanding and influential American poets of the 19th century. Her poem “I Heard a Fly Buzz -When I Died” is told from a perspective of narrator who is near her death. As a typical modernist poet, Dickinson’s poems have prominent modernist characteristics. Her poetry language deviates from the norm, not limited to the language norms, forming a unique foregrounding effect from different levels such as phonetic level (the repetition of diphthong, flow, nasal, and iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter), graphological level (the frequent use of capital words and dashes), rhetorical level (enjambment, contrast, synesthesia, oxymoron), semantic level (lexical meaning transference) and grammatical level (juxtaposition and ellipsis). Exploring the stylistic characteristics of Dickinson’s poetry based on the theory of deviation from the functional stylistics is helpful to excavating the implicated theme meaning and unique aesthetic value of Dickinson’s poetry.
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