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16504 papers
At the close of the last century, Daniel Farber articulated a powerful case in favor of what he called “eco-pragmatism.”1 In Farber’s view, environmental protection is plagued by a stark and seemingly irreconcilable divide between “tree huggers” and “bean counters.”2 The former camp believes that environmental law and policy should be determined by “willingness to vote,” on the assumption that the public tends to value environmental conservation and robust and equitable human health and safety protection. In contrast, bean counters favor “willingness to pay,” on the assumption that law and policy should be governed by neoclassical economic analysis rather than inarticulate and potentially irrational public views.3 Neither camp seems to admit to any legitimacy in the other’s position. As a result, the two “[c]ontesting [d]ogmas”4 work to prevent coherent, balanced environmental policy from emerging, leaving the United States instead with ad hoc compromises between extremes or, perhaps worse, wild polar swings as one side or another fleetingly occupies power. Reflecting on what has happened politically in the United States since his book was published, one can imagine Farber today allowing himself a vigorous scholarly attaboy. Nailed it, he did.In addition to his prescient diagnosis, Farber offered a practical, ecumenical framework as cure, one that eschews any attempt to find the one right way to analyze environmental law and policy matters. Whereas bean counters and tree huggers seem to share “a belief that environmental policy can be based on a single overriding value, whether that value is economic or environmental,”5 eco-pragmatism instead acknowledges the plurality of values, perspectives, and knowledges that might be brought to bear on contested social issues. Accordingly, eco-pragmatism seeks to create decision-making processes that take advantage of all relevant and useful knowledge while treating respectfully the diversity of perspectives that humans embrace to evaluate such knowledge. As Farber put it, “in reality, both market and political mechanisms have flaws as expression of the public interest. The real question is not whether to follow one while ignoring the other, but how to make the best use of both to guide public policy.”6 Importantly, this inclusive approach is to be tempered by a healthy dose of humility and a practical commitment to the task at hand. After all, at the end of the day, decision-makers must decide. Thus, in Farber’s words, a chief aim of eco-pragmatism is “to keep us firmly aware of the complexity of our values, but prevent that complexity from entangling us to the point of inaction.”7Farber’s article, Inequality and Regulation: Designing Rules to Address Race, Poverty, and Environmental Justice, offers a valuable application of his eco-pragmatist approach to the contemporary and urgent problems of racial and economic inequality in the United States. In particular, Farber takes up the question of whether and how inequality should factor into the rulemaking processes that regulators use to craft new measures to protect human health, safety, and the environment. Farber’s express goal is to find “ways to make regulations more responsive to the needs of the poor and people of color.”8 Farber’s central recommendation, however, “[s]urprisingly” involves “mapping risk and exposure [to] shape regulatory solutions without the need for explicit consideration of inequality in regulatory design.”9 Much like the Biden administration’s adoption of an environmental justice screening tool that did not explicitly consider race,10 Farber’s recommendation relies on criteria such as risk exposure and vulnerability that strongly correlate with race and income without directly targeting those factors. In both cases, the adoption of neutral regulatory techniques is being driven by concern that more direct approaches would be vulnerable to challenge in the current legal milieu. Farber’s approach also can be seen as nicely consistent with the ethos he conveyed years earlier in Eco-Pragmatism: “Given that polarization is such a major problem in environmental law, one particularly important avenue for progress is to defuse the conflicts by finding implementation methods that accommodate competing concerns.”11Farber should be commended for elucidating ways to promote equality and environmental justice within the regulatory process that are practically implementable, politically feasible, and—most important for the current moment—legally defensible. To chart a promising path forward on such salient, vital, and contentious issues is the very essence of eco-pragmatism. Still, readers should not miss the fact that Farber’s proposals contain within them seeds of a fairly dramatic reconceptualization of the modern and seemingly well-entrenched practice of regulatory cost–benefit analysis in the United States. One needs to look very carefully to spot it, but apparently over the last couple of decades Farber’s sensible Midwestern eco-pragmatism has picked up a radical Berkeley streak.Although often seen as a technical field defined by abstract concepts like risk and efficiency, the law of environmental, health, and safety protection is intertwined at all levels with matters of justice and equality. At the local level, even putting aside the voluminous evidence documenting the disproportionate environmental burdens facing residents of poor and minority communities,12 consider the fact that our very understanding of what and where nonhuman biodiversity exists can be powerfully shaped by our own racist past.13 At the global level, consider the fact that researchers estimate that greenhouse gas emissions from the five highest-emitting countries have imposed approximately six trillion dollars of lost economic productivity on other nations since the year 1990.14 In short, from neighborhood birdwatching clubs to the halls of the United Nations, questions of fairness and responsibility cannot be disentangled from questions of environmental, health, and safety regulation.But how to accommodate the former within the latter? As Farber points out, inequality typically plays only a minor role in the design and implementation of protective regulations in the United States. This paucity of attention is driven in part by the influence of regulatory cost–benefit analysis, a decision-making framework that takes the status quo distribution of wealth, resources, and power in society as given and seeks only to maximize welfare holding that distribution constant. To the extent that equity—as opposed to efficiency—is thought to be a matter of social concern, an influential view holds that distributive efforts should be pursued through the tax-and-transfer system rather than through alteration of otherwise welfare-maximizing regulations.15The limited role of inequality in agency rulemaking is also driven by the fact that many statutes do not command agencies to center inequality as a basis for rulemaking, a limitation that is likely of even greater significance following the Supreme Court’s expansive view of the major questions doctrine in West Virginia v. EPA.16 With emboldened state attorneys general ready to sue at every agency mouse click, regulators may be reluctant to pursue rules that could be characterized as taking on social challenges outside a narrow understanding of their authorizing statutes. Because of this reality, coupled with the threat of the Congressional Review Act amidst the oscillating balance of power in U.S. national politics, agencies need to craft regulations quickly and with a view toward lasting significance. Understandably, these dynamics might counsel an agency to embrace the tenets of eco-pragmatism.When one turns specifically to racial inequality, an agency’s task of redressing past and present injustice is complicated by the additional challenge of potential constitutional barriers to race-conscious decision-making. Farber’s analysis of the likely legal challenges facing environmental, health, and safety regulations premised explicitly on race is sober, informed, and to be ignored only at an agency’s peril. In this regard, it bears noting how much the field of environmental law has benefited over the years from Farber’s expertise in constitutional law, a relative rarity in a field filled with scholars of property, tort, and administrative law. Of particular note in Inequality and Regulation is Farber’s careful parsing of the way agencies might constitutionally deploy race-neutral means even if an express purpose of doing so is to improve conditions for communities of color.17 Significant also is his astute distinction between the aggregative or collective focus of environmental, health, and safety regulations and the individualized hiring or admissions determinations that are made pursuant to affirmative action programs—a distinction that might render the former less constitutionally vulnerable than the latter.18Still, notwithstanding these potentially promising arguments, Farber’s overall conclusion is that concerns over inequality must generally be addressed within environmental, health, and safety regulatory rulemaking only through indirect channels. Happily, he sees practical and impactful ways to do so. First, agencies can resist the bean counters’ “plea for disaggregation”19 and instead continue to measure the benefits of avoided loss of life according to a uniform value of a statistical life (VSL). Analysts who promote disaggregation instead believe that agencies should try to identify the populations who would be benefited by a protective rule and value the benefits at the price the affected individuals themselves would be willing to pay to obtain them.20 Practical difficulties would confound such an exercise, but Farber also sees conceptual failings in it. By embracing instead a uniform value of life irrespective of the wealth, age, race, gender, or other characteristics of the benefited individual, agencies can espouse what Farber calls “harm egalitarianism,” a view that “equivalent harms should be treated the same by regulators.”21 A benefit of harm egalitarianism in Farber’s view is that it channels more public resources toward protection of poor people than would be the case if their lives were valued according to disaggregated willingness-to-pay measures.As a second eco-pragmatic way to promote equality and environmental justice, Farber emphasizes a focus on “differences in exposure and vulnerability”22 when agencies undertake risk assessment. Although environmental, health, and safety agencies typically are not empowered to redress structural racism or historical discrimination directly, those concerns might be addressed “in an indirect way” since “geography presents a potential mediating framework in which the life circumstances of poor communities and people of color can enter into regulatory decisions.”23 Thus, the impact of disparate siting of hazardous facilities in poor and minority communities is likely to show up in an agency’s estimate of pollutant exposure levels in those communities, even without directly targeting factors like wealth, race, or historical discrimination. Likewise, the impact of structural racism is likely to be picked up through an agency’s estimate of a community’s vulnerability to pollution exposure, given that the measure will encompass factors connected to structural racism, such as access to health care and transportation, prevalence of comorbidities, and so on. In both cases, environmental justice might be pursued without directly inviting political backlash and legal challenge.As noted above,24 the Biden administration adopted a similarly indirect approach when constructing its Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool (CEJST).25 Although the CEJST attracted criticism from environmental justice advocates for not directly including race and ethnicity among its many variables, analysis shows that communities with majority racial and ethnic minority populations are disproportionately likely to be identified as disadvantaged by the CEJST.26 For the communities who may be immediately benefited by the billions of dollars flowing from the Inflation Reduction Act and the Justice40 initiative,27 sacrificing direct engagement with racism and inequality in exchange for legal defensibility in the crafting of regulations and government support may be a compromise worth making.Still, it is also worth asking what might be lost when such fundamental moral and political matters are addressed only indirectly, through technical lenses like the VSL, risk assessment, or the CEJST. To put the question sharply, at what point does the price of eco-pragmatism’s pragmatism become too great? Before grappling with that dilemma, it is important to recognize and appreciate the subtle, yet dramatic, conceptual implications of Inequality and Regulation. Notwithstanding its well-tempered, eco-pragmatic framing, Farber’s latest contribution poses a significant challenge to the welfare economic theory that has undergirded regulatory analysis in the United States for the past four decades.To see the radical implications of Farber’s contribution, it is helpful to imagine how his recommendations would inform a concrete case. During the George W. Bush administration, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sought to assess its regulation of mercury emissions from power plants. One of the most well-characterized health hazards of mercury emissions is mental impairment of infants from neonatal exposure in mothers who eat mercury-contaminated fish. Accordingly, a key issue raised by environmental justice advocates during the EPA’s rulemaking concerned the higher levels of contaminated fish that are consumed by members of Pacific and Great Lakes Native American tribes who are subsistence fishers.28 Not surprisingly, exposure estimates revealed these individuals and their children face much greater health risks from mercury than predicted by the EPA’s general population models.For a bean counter committed to disaggregation of the VSL, the response to this disproportionate exposure level would be clear: the EPA should inquire how much Native American subsistence fishers themselves are willing to pay to avoid the dangers of consuming mercury-contaminated fish. In that manner, the EPA could determine what level of mercury reduction maximizes overall social welfare, where welfare is defined by individual willingness to pay based on the preexisting distribution of wealth, resources, and power in society.Such an exercise might be consistent with dominant strands of welfare economic theory, but it also works to compound the historical discrimination and structural racism that affect how much Native American subsistence fishers are able to pay today, not just willing. Is the greater fish consumption level of Indigenous populations really to be seen as a mere consumer preference like any other, or is it better understood as a constitutive element of those populations’ very identity and—by extension—something the public might be willing to preserve even at greater cost than the benefited populations themselves could pay? The bean counter has no answer to this question other than to awkwardly offer an “identity premium” that might artificially boost for regulatory accounting the willingness to pay of Indigenous people to continue their traditional dietary practices but that would not otherwise upset the individual preference maximization exercise with its staunch denial of publicly expressed values.29Farber’s approach, in contrast, takes the uniform VSL and applies it even in the context of a benefited population whose ability to pay might not support the standard VSL. As noted above, this approach has the laudable effect of directing more public resources toward the poor and marginalized than they might be willing or able to spend on their own for protection. In contrast to Farber, Cass Sunstein argues that this effect is not laudable at all and that, in his view, “a uniform value [of life] is obtuse.”30 Sunstein’s argument rests on the notion that regulators who apply a uniform VSL are forcing poor people to purchase more safety than those people themselves “want.” In his comment on Inequality and Regulation, David Weisbach likewise argues that “using equal VSLs means we may often require low-income households to pay more for safety than they wish to pay.”31 Thus, according to Weisbach, before Farber can claim to have helped disadvantaged populations through his approach, he must identify “the incidence of the costs and benefits of [a] regulation”32 to assess whether targeted beneficiaries really are made better off on net by the regulation.As Farber notes, however, the obtuseness here seems not to lie with the uniform VSL but rather with the bean counters’ reduction of law from an expression of public values and commitments to a contrived surrogate for individual market transactions.33 Farber’s principle of “devoting equal resources to prevent equal harms” reflects a public moral commitment to treat all lives as equally valuable and worthy of protection. Farber expressly seeks to “elevate the interests of the poor by deviating from the theory of cost–benefit analysis and treating the value of life as constant regardless of wealth.”34 Elsewhere, as a defense of the use of a uniform VSL, Farber affirms, and indeed celebrates, the fact that “equality norms are already embedded in the government’s version of cost–benefit analysis.”35Here we start to recognize that although you can’t take Illinois out of the boy, you can apparently add a healthy dose of California. The underlying normative justification for Farber’s argument that regulation should be wealth-blind in assessing harms36 does not just push back on the bean counter’s plea for disaggregation. It actually cuts much deeper into the heart of modern regulatory cost–benefit analysis: it rejects individual preference and willingness to pay as the normative foundation of welfare maximization and instead seems to embrace something like an objective list approach in which human health and safety are treated as lexically prior to other sources of welfare. Likewise, Farber’s focus on exposure and vulnerability in risk assessment seems to be driven by the same underlying embrace of health rather than willingness to pay as the relevant value criterion for measuring well-being. This embrace explains why the bean counters’ argument that a uniform VSL “often makes low-income households worse off”37 misses its mark. Farber is not measuring whether people are better or worse off according to individual willingness to pay as bean counters are wont to do. He is asking whether they will have less mercury in their wombs.38There is important practical, as well as philosophical, wisdom in this approach. To begin with, Farber’s approach is more consistent with the statutory framework of modern environmental, health, and safety law. Much of this law was ushered into existence by “an orgy of consensus” in Congress,39 and the consensus view more often than not embraced uniform levels of protection. Whether based on protective health standards or best available technologies, the statutory approach typically rejects the idea that people should receive only the level of protection they are individually willing to pay to acquire. With these directions from Congress, why should agencies nevertheless evaluate the costs and benefits of a proposed rule using disaggregated VSLs? If the regulatory standards themselves will generally need to remain uniform, why should agencies disaggregate for purposes of the cost–benefit analysis? It would be interesting to know how disaggregated versus uniform VSLs would typically impact measured benefits in the environmental, health, and safety context. Given the disproportionate burdens imposed on poor and minority communities, one suspects that the effect of disaggregated VSLs in practice would be to lower the “regulatory budget” available to agencies in their rulemakings. If that lowering explains the underlying practical motivation for the bean counters’ insistence on disaggregation, then agencies have good reason to reject it.40Relatedly, as eco-pragmatism reminds us, decision-makers in the real world do not have the luxury of academic theorists, who can for before to a view or a of must decide. them to share the bean counters’ insistence that we must understanding of a before it can be while Weisbach may be as a matter of welfare economic theory that need much more work before that Farber’s is that is not an argument for Farber’s as a matter of the practical of the bean counters’ with up in which regulations to their seems to be another version of the to any regulation through by If the goal is to a implications for welfare in the real then why is the of bean counters so often a rule in the real where its implications could most be Farber that “the over cost–benefit analysis has to focus more on its a that to more and than the earlier over the of the one the that Farber makes in Inequality and Regulation to be consistent with this focus on eco-pragmatic implementation of cost–benefit the also can be seen to fundamental moral over cost–benefit The narrow version of cost–benefit analysis by bean counters value criterion according to individual willingness to in how costs and benefits are valued and whether a proposed regulation will be in the that it overall welfare. other social concerns are to the of The in the value that what are given the of as opposed to being and off to the tax-and-transfer defense of a uniform VSL is practical and It is also at in to this of cost–benefit his approach of “devoting equal resources to prevent equal Farber is not agencies should promote to the of He is that the between and can be when we the ways in which value, welfare, and can be the Bush administration EPA an environmental justice analysis of its proposed mercury the agency that the emissions it were not so that Native would be by the This in the rulemaking was only a bean counter who sees welfare to the of the lives and communities that are by those would have identified potential to Native as the environmental justice concern at issue for mercury As at the the the relevant it the current of environmental benefits and burdens and the of efforts to and Native If pursued such an would efforts to make progress toward environmental justice by disproportionate principle of “devoting equal resources to prevent equal harms” instead would have offered the benefit of the EPA to more resources to populations that are more to the of mercury and other To be Farber’s approach would have so without directly environmental justice, at not in the way that environmental justice advocates typically their Environmental justice advocates to more than just the distribution of environmental burdens and also to racism and to and the of that cannot be out of or present existence through cost–benefit a of cost–benefit analysis as as Farber’s is to these issues in the they to be Farber is right that agencies have to the of and of power that racial and economic statutory are by of power that also must be through the narrow of a Supreme To environmental justice in the by the of justice will require more than eco-pragmatic implementation of statutes. It will require a that takes the task of in the public interest. It will require over a that too often with efforts to in the public interest. It will in short, of the we have not seen since the statutes were
The purpose of the study is to determine themain trends in the development of theGerman language (in comparison with theRussian language) in the context of socio-political transformations, changing social norms, communication conditions, and rethinking of values. The scientific novelty of thework is to establish the factors that determine changes in theGerman language. The article proposes an analysis of norms and values of theGerman society in terms of their synchronous stability and diachronic variability. The development of theGerman language in themodern period is influenced both by global processes (globalization, pandemic, conflicts, etc.), and by the peculiarities of the life of theGerman nation in the context of increasing migration, struggle for gender equality and gender diversity. The authors give examples of neologisms and borrowings in theGerman language that have arisen under the influence of various forms of political correctness, as well as examples of other lexical and speech innovations due to the new value hierarchy. As a result of considering the specifics of social norms and values of theGerman society, the universal and original trends in the evolution of themodern German language, the features of the language policy of theGerman state are determined.
Modern realities are such that Internet discourse should be given special attention.On the one hand, it covers most of our modern life, on the other hand, it often violates not only linguistic norms, but also ethical postulates, which is explained by negative trends in society, neglect of cultural foundations and eternal values.The situation requires an immediate solution, in connection with which there is an urgent need to consider the problem of communication on the Internet and the purity of the native language.It is important to monitor the quality of linguistic communication, especially in the context of digital interaction, since in the modern context it occupies a huge, significant niche and it is an indicator of the diseases of society that must be eliminated.The subject of the study is modern communication in various social networks, as well as various online publications that cover current events.The object of the study is the Russian language, lexical units, as well as invective vocabulary, which is observed in modern Internet discourse.The relevance of the study lies in the urgent need to highlight the problems of verbal communication on the Internet, prescribing appropriate rules and norms of adequate communication to the Internet discourse, eliminating grammatical and lexical errors in messages.The novelty of the study lies in the development of a number of recommendations for the purification of the Russian language from language and speech units that do not meet ethical standards, observed in modern Internet communication.The work is recommended for teachers, CITISE http://ma123.ruЦИТИСЭ №1 (35) 2023
Abstract This paper explores the theoretical question of linguistic coherence by investigating lexical variation in contemporary Italian. In order to tackle issues regarding the coherence of lexical choice, variation is investigated with methods from lexical lectometry, which approaches the structure of language varieties (i.e. lects) by studying aggregate-level lexical distances between them. Based on uniformity measures, as introduced by Geeraerts et al. (1999), we have calculated the internal and external uniformity of spoken and written traditional standard Italian (represented by the academic section of the CORIS corpus for written Italian and the formal parts of the KIP corpus for spoken Italian) and neo-standard Italian (represented by the ParlaTO corpus for spoken Italian and the newspaper section of the CORIS corpus). The results confirm the hypothesis that two standard norms coexist in contemporary Italian and that traditional standard Italian appears to be more coherent at the lexical level than neo-standard Italian. Yet the study also indicates that other forms of coherence exist in contemporary Italian, depending on the adopted theoretical and methodological framework.
Abstract The paper describes and analyzes the full presence of blue in the Old Testament – in Hebrew and translations. The interdisciplinary approach includes the treatment of color as a cultural unit according to of Eco’s idea, lexical and contextual semantics, distinguishing visual and verbal color languages. The interface between verbal and visual color language is the prototype. Prototypes are universal natural visual objects – sky, sea, fire, blood, the sun at noon, all plants, light, milk, snow, darkness, and coal and have evolved into cultural units (Eco 1996 [1985]) in all cultures and languages. Basic Color Terms (BCT – blue ), Prototype Terms (PT – sky and sea ), Rivals Terms of prototypes (RT – sapphire, blue skins ), Terms for Basic Features of the Prototypes (TBFP – breadth, infinite, boundless ) are examined. Translation is a criterion for semiotic value, cultural and linguistic context. Norm of Test of Free Word-Associations is a source of non-color (secondary) meanings of verbal colors. Test results allow us to flesh out the hidden links ‘prototype color ─ most typical feature of the prototype ─ secondary meanings of color’ in text and visual culture. The secondary cultural meanings of BCTs and RTs are specified in color compounds. The color blue tehèlet is used in most cases in synergy (not in opposition) with the other three colors in a tetrad: purple argamàn─ scarlet tolàat shanì─ linen shesh. Analysis on the synergic relations is performed. The same applies to duads blue-linen, blue-purple, blue skins-scarlet, blue skins-red skins. Color compounds are elements of the Priestly Code, therefore a hypothesis on compounds at semiotic axes is developed. The PT sky is involved in religious heritage. Themes as Hebrew substitute shamàim for the Tetragrammaton, the Hierarchy of heavens complete the areas of cultural unit blue in the Old Testament.
The article deals with the expediency of using authentic materials in foreign language classes to develop students' language communicative competence. The concepts of "authenticity" and "authentic materials" are analyzed. It is determined that authentic materials come from the country whose language is being studied and are primarily intended for native speakers, therefore they are distinguished by the originality of the lexical composition, grammatical forms and structures, and reflect the content and situations that correspond to the mentality and norms of that country. It is clarified that these materials include printed texts such as newspapers, magazines, literary works, announcements, advertising brochures, etc.; audio materials such as radio broadcasts, podcasts, songs; and video materials such as news reports, advertisements, interviews, artistic and documentary films, etc. The possible ways of using authentic printed, audio, and video materials are analyzed. The stages and methods of working with different types of authentic materials are presented, which ensure the expediency of their use in foreign language classes. Criteria for selecting authentic materials have been defined: correspondence of the content of authentic materials to the language proficiency level, age, and interests of students; orientation of the material towards the development of communicative and sociocultural competencies; suitable format of the material that allows for the use of didactic possibilities. The advantages of using authentic materials in foreign language classes have been summarized: increased motivation of students to learn a foreign language; learning a foreign language through examples of its use in real-life situations; familiarization with the country-specific features, culture, traditions, realities, and mentality of people; creating a relaxed atmosphere in class that stimulates interest, cognitive anticipation, and imagination; the uniqueness of authentic materials enhances attention, develops memory, and promotes effective assimilation of the material. The disadvantages, such as the large amount of time required for searching and selecting authentic materials that meet all the criteria, and developing tasks for these materials, have been identified. It has been determined that the perspective of further work is the development of a complex of educational materials based on authentic sources and their testing in foreign language classes.
In this paper, a linguistic analysis of the Itinerarium Egeriae, one of the oldest documented Christian pilgrimages to the eastern Mediterranean, is presented. The aim of the work is to present characteristics related to Vulgar Latin. The linguistic analysis is focused on characteristics which are not in keeping with classical norms, in an attempt to describe certain changes with regard to Classical Latin and traditional grammar, which may cause difficulty for the reader. It is evident that the Itinerarium Egeriae is not characterized by ornate expression like the texts of classical writers, but it offers interesting, if sometimes confusing, deviations from classical norms. The paper is divided into two parts. In the first section Egeria, the purpose of the trip, the text, the author’s ability to observe, and her style aimed at spiritual instruction are presented. Egeria’s style of Latin are the subject of the second and main section of the work, which includes language, style, literary aspect and phonological, morphological, syntactic and lexical characteristics of travel writing.
The article analyzes speech characteristics of the characters of the film “Class” depicting French immigrants’ children. The teenagers study at one of the suburb Paris colleges. They communicate with each other and teachers in the form of a dialogue. The adolescents intentionally tend to ignore the rules of behavior established by the educational institution and neglect the norms of the codified French language. Using artistic images, the film reproduces one of the most topical social problems in modern France — that of immigrants’ resistance to accepting French cultural values, customs, codes, language, and speech culture. The characters’ speech determines their nationality, social status, personal values, and emotional state. Sampling, the linguistic and stylistic types of analysis were employed as research methods. The teenagers use verlanized and obscene lexical units, words from the young immigrant argot developed by borrowing, neologizing, and rethinking outdated French words. The verlan and special colloquial lexical units that characters use contain negative emotional and evaluative connotations. The insults, rudeness, name-calling, familiarity between immigrant children are ritual, intra-group, sociocultural, harmless, directed against the culture, language, economic dominance of the French-speaking ethnos in the society. The adolescent verbal behavior expresses a pejorative assessment of the French culture, language and people. The children ignore school rules and neglect standard French. Verlanisms, youth slang/argot, aggression are considered as the reaction of young immigrants to the requirement to learn standard French and behavioral rules of the French society, rejection by the ethnic French, lack of opportunities to rise in life, a sign of psychological trauma, as well as hardships.
Youth sociolect has recently become the subject of increased attention of academic linguists, however, this phenomenon has a long history. Youth sociolect is one of the spheres of emergence and the most active channel of the spread of language innovations: lexical, phraseological. The new in the vocabulary captures the dynamics of the present, the real state of the language, which cannot be ignored or bypassed only on the basis that it is not the norm. It manifests itself not only in the replenishment of the vocabulary of the language, in the appearance of new words and new meanings, but also in the change of the semantic structure of the word and its volume. Characteristic features of youth communication are a relaxed, informal, humorous tone of communication, a high degree of emotionality. This is ensured by advanced use of appropriate vocabulary. Numerous studies indicate that it is the youth sociolect that is distinguished by the active use of colloquial vocabulary and slang. Therefore, the study of the specific features of its lexical enrichment, the determination of the productivity of various means of replenishing its vocabulary, and the identification of the relationship between different ways of word formation are of great importance for the characteristics of the youth sociolect. The study of the youth sociolect is still relevant today.
Prose works boast rich cultural connotation, loose structure, free form of expression. There are great cultural differences between Chinese culture and West culture; English pays attention to hypotaxis and strictly obeys the grammatical expression norms. Achieving complete equivalence between the original text and the translated text when translating Chinese prose works into English is difficult. Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that grammatical accuracy and literal corresponding should not be attached great importance in translation but that the reaction of the readers to the translation should be essentially like that of the original readers, which effectively reduces the conversion between the source language and target language of objective standard and furthest achieves functional equivalence between the original text and translated text and effectively solves the problems in the process of prose translation. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, four strategies for prose translation from the lexical, syntactic, discourse and stylistic levels are proposed in this paper, which are lexical transformation, sentence structure changing, constituent addition, holistic consideration.
This article continues the study of the problem of systemic reconstruction of legal norms (See: Voronin, M. V., Avramenko, A. V., Belous, A. A. (2022). Systematic reconstruction of legal norms: needs, methodology, prospects. Legal world, 9, 30-38).
 The aim of the present article is to develop and describe a method of systemic reconstruction of legal norms in its linguistic aspect to solve the problem of converting legal texts in natural language into a database. The advantage of the method is a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach that combines jurisprudence, linguistics and subject matter expertise. This approach ensures high quality of the converted data.
 Drawing on the case of The Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), the substantial factors that make it difficult to interpret unambiguously the regulatory material are analyzed; with these factors in view, a model of a formalized wording is proposed. The model makes it possible to present normative material in a standardized form and to combine it into a database. Based on the reconstruction experience of the Rules of GMP, lexical and syntactic transformations of the source text, as well as typical semantic tasks that the expert solves at the synthesis stage are described. The article shows the effectiveness of transformational grammar rules at that stage to achieve semantic equivalence of the original and transformed textual information within the framework of the described method.
 The method of systemic reconstruction in its linguistic aspect is significant for further work related to improving the language of technical regulations.
This paper presents a comparative investigation of the metaphorical semantics of the numeral "three" in Russian and Chinese phraseological units (PU). The aim of the study is to identify similarities and differences in the meaning of the number "three" in these PUs and to determine the national peculiarities of their usage. The authors apply a lexico-semantic synchronous approach, focusing on the semantic analysis of the number "three" in terms of its metaphorical lexical meanings and lexical-syntactic groups indicating quantity. The study confirms that symbolic meanings of the number "three" in Russian and Chinese PUs sometimes coincide, yet there are distinct national specificities. In Russian PUs, the number "three" often carries the meaning of "more than the norm," reflecting the transition from ancient to modern linguistic worldview. In Chinese PUs, the meaning "less than the norm" is entirely absent, but the overall usage of the number "three" is more ambiguous, often serving to generalize similar characteristics. The research findings have practical implications for cross-linguistic communication and cultural understanding. The authors conclude that Russian PUs with the number "three" conveying the meaning of "more than the norm" are prevalent in contemporary speech, while those with the meaning of "norm" have become outdated. The analysis of evaluative language in Chinese PUs shows a preference for metaphors related to objects or concepts rather than groups of people. The study underscores the significance of cultural context in the analysis of the symbolic semantics of the number "three" in phraseology and demonstrates the potential of contrastive linguistics in better understanding linguistic peculiarities and cultural nuances.
The article examines the main processes associated with the formation and development of writing in the Old High German period of the formation of the German language. The Old High German period is primarily the period of the formation of the German nation, first within the Frankish state, and later the East Frankish state, ending with the proclamation of the German Empire in 962. Actually, the written tradition of the German language is connected with church life. In the monastery cells, theological treatises, prayers, and psalms were translated into German, historical works were written, and biblical commentaries were compiled for the school and for the education of priests. Monasteries became the centers of education and spiritual life of the early feudal society. At this time, a new form of existence of the German language was formed in the form of a set of territorial dialects. The article notes that The Old High German dialects differ from each other in phonetic, morphological, lexical, and even syntactic aspects. In other words, almost every dialect had its own spelling and phonetic features. However, the unity of the German language was always ensured by the kinship of the dialects, the general trends in the development of their phonetic and grammatical structure, and interaction with a particularly strong influence of the Frankish dialect on others. The development of the graphic system in this period is complex due to the adaptation of the Latin alphabet to German pronunciation. At that time, there was not only a single orthographic norm for the German language in general, but also a single spelling of certain words or morphemes within the framework of a single written document. The main written works of that time are analysed, taking into account the dialectal features of each of them. It has been found that under the influence of Latin, the German script undergoes significant changes, but retains its linguistic independence, particularly in the consonant system.
Aim. To identify modern Austrian German lexical structure specific characteristics due to the influence of extra linguistic factors. Methodology. The research uses the method of continuous sampling, lexicographic, lexical and semantic and contextual analysis, classification and systematization of linguistic material while identifying transformational processes in the lexical structure of modern Austrian German. Results. The most and least productive transformation processes characteristic of Austrian German lexical structure are identified, as well as the reasons for such changes are formulated according to the research results. The features of borrowed lexical units are analyzed, the reasons for their frequency and functioning in modern Austrian German are indicated. It is proved that the lexical subsystem of Austrian German is characterized by the presence of unique elements that form the basis of the Austrian culture. Such lexical items as Austricisms turn out to be the norm for Austrian German and are prevalent in everyday spheres. The revealed lexical transformation processes typical for Austrian German reflect the specifics of the linguistic and cultural worldview typical of Austrian mentality. Research implications. The research reveals the potential of transformational processes taking place in such a national variant of the German language as the Austrian German language. The lexical structure of Austrian German is influenced by two key processes: indigenization and globalization which contribute to preservation of its unique properties, reflecting the specifics of the Austrian linguistic culture.
This paper deals with the peculiarities of language code choice as a means of national self-expression in the Arabic social media humour (in particular, in memes and jokes). In the globalized online communities, humour can play a pivotal role for the rapprochement of in-group members based on a certain type of their identity (national, social, gender, etc.). In this study, the notion of Arab national identity refers to the entire Ummah and, on the other hand, to the representatives of different Arab countries as well. It is reflected on the Arabic language variation online and beyond. This research revealed diverse language attitudes conveyed within the “self – other” binary opposition. The analysis of over 1,000 online posts (Egyptian, Iraqi, Moroccan, and other) showed that the commonality with the in-group members is expressed with the language code which is considered the closest for the recipients. It is indicated to the predominance of colloquial varieties (territorial dialects, sociolects, youth slang) with the variation in their written transmission. Modern Standard Arabic is used as well, sometimes with minor deviations from the norm or with the colloquial lexis insertions. Both explicit and implicit lexical tools (colloquial and slang words, precedent lexis, etc.) are utilized to stress the uniqueness of “self”. Different codes are used to create the contrast between “self” (all Arabs / a certain Arab country) and “other” (all non-Arabs / the West / a certain Arab or non-Arab country, etc.). The studied varieties were also affected by the sociocultural context, topics of posts, communicants’ situational roles, the technology, and so forth. The results of this investigation ascertained that the Arabic language form used in the humorous posts is an integral part of the communicants’ identity as it demonstrates their belonging to a national group with its specific sociocultural, political, and historical background.
The article analyzes the structural, lexical-semantic and pragmatic features of the public speech of a professional diplomat as a genre of modern Chinese-language diplomatic discourse based on the material of the speech of the Charge d’Affaires of the People’s Republic of China at the UN Dai Bing at the open meeting of the UN Security Council on the issue of Ukraine on February 24, 2023. Based on the results of an analysis of fragments of discourse carried out using a wide range of discursive research methods developed by T. Van Dijk and taking into account the current international political context and the actual interests of China in the global and regional dimension, the key discursive goals that the Chinese side is most likely to achieve and strive to achieve namely: promotion of a positive image of the PRC as a “responsible state” that adheres to generally recognized norms of international and humanitarian law, protects the interests of peaceful citizens and economically vulnerable states; promoting one’s vision of the Taiwan issue as a matter of territorial integrity; discrediting the USA, its key geopolitical opponent, as a state that applies double standards in international politics, interferes in the internal affairs of other states, incites war in Ukraine, is not interested in established peace; an attempt to neutralize the negative image of the Russian Federation by silencing the role of each of the parties to the conflict, declaring theses about the existence of “rational security concerns” caused by the “expansion of military blocs” and support for the Russian Federation’s rhetoric regarding the need to immediately start negotiations “without preconditions”; protecting one’s own economic interests by criticizing the sanctions policy.
The article deals with the problem of translating military-related journalistic texts in terms of the functions of the journalistic style, among which we distinguish the informative and the influence functions. The informative function, which is often embodied in the chronicle genre and consists in presenting information without influencing the recipient's reaction, leads to the avoidance of the use of words and techniques that achieve this effect. The function of influence, which is present in analytical articles in particular, requires the use of lexemes and artistic devices through which the author manipulates the recipient's reaction. The main objective of the article is to establish the pragmatic purpose and lexical means used in different genres of journalistic texts with a view to their further adequate translation, as well as to identify the peculiarities of using translation transformations in the translation of military texts. The study found that this feature of the style complicates the translation process, as it creates problems related to lexical, stylistic and pragmatic components. Translation transformations help the translator to systematise the source material and retranslate it into the target language without violating its language norms. The analysis of the translated article excerpts revealed that the most commonly used transformations were transcription, transliteration, loan translation, concretization, substitution, omission and antonymous translation. The study has shown that the use of translation transformations is heterogeneous and is usually caused by the author's communicative goal, compliance with the rules of grammar of the target language, and the desire to facilitate the recipient's perception of the text without losing the semantic and stylistic elements of the original.
The effects of globalization and increasing international interaction pose a challenge to modern societies in overcoming language barriers in the context of intercultural communication and national identity formation. In a world where different cultures, languages and values meet, there is a need for tools and strategies that promote mutual understanding, tolerance and the preservation of cultural characteristics. International communication is an important part of the modern world, where people from different cultures and languages communicate and exchange information. However, in the process of international communication, language and cultural barriers often arise, which can lead to misunderstandings and misperception of information. One of the main factors leading to language barriers is the difference in languages and thought structures. Each language has its own unique grammatical and lexical features that can be difficult for other cultures to understand and use. In addition, different cultures may have different ways of perceiving information and a different set of norms and values that influence the perception and interpretation of messages. This research article aims to explore the role of overcoming language barriers in the context of intercultural communication and its impact on national identity formation. It focuses on the analysis of various aspects, such as foreign language learning, cultural education, empathy and the use of auxiliary communication tools, which contribute to overcoming language barriers and improving interethnic interaction. This article reviews the literature covering the relevant aspects of intercultural communication, the impact of language barriers on it and their relationship with the formation of national identity; strategies for overcoming language barriers, such as learning foreign languages, cultural education and the use of auxiliary communication tools, are considered.
Metadiscourse is essential in creating and organizing persuasive discourse, taking into account the norms and expectations of parties involved. The purpose of this study is to explore the use of interactional (interpersonal) metadiscourse markers in dentistry case reports, analyze their functions within the text, and evaluate their effectiveness in establishing the writer's credibility and authority in managing textual interactions. The research material included a collection of 60 clinical case reports sourced from special dentistry journals for 2017 – 2022. The larges share of all lexical interactional metadiscourse markers is represented by hedges, attitude markers are nearly one-third as much, while self-mentioned markers, and, especially, boosters and engagement markers are underrepresented. Deliberate, cautious expressions of scientific claims mainly achieved in the dentistry case reports by using hedges can bring in establishing credibility more than authoritative stances. The prevalence of hedges can be a way for dental professionals to indicate that their statements are not absolute or definitive. This is particularly important in a field like dentistry, where there may be multiple treatment options or varying levels of certainty about diagnoses. Attitude markers are used to evoke agreement among readers and create a sense of shared understanding, drawing the readers into a collaborative framework of agreement. Boosters as signals of confidence and certainty in the claims being made and engagement markers that propagate the author’s view are barely present in the dentistry case reports. Most of the interactional markers are located in the Discussion and Conclusion sections.
Based on a retrospective analysis of the academic discourse of several decades, the article shows that the term
 “speech competence” has not received a commonly accepted definition, especially when it comes to the preschool age.
 The study conducted by the authors has made it possible to determine the phenomenological characteristics of the preschoolers’
 speech competence, considering it as a dynamic integral personal quality, manifested in the ability and willingness
 to successfully listen, perceive and reproduce information, be engaged in conversation, express personal opinions
 and points of view in the oral form in accordance with the age norm. Its lexical, phonological, grammatical, dialogical
 and monological functional components have been identified and defined subject to pedagogical impact. These components
 contain operational characteristics of the speech competence of preschoolers. The speech competence of preschool
 children includes also the following meta-components: awareness of the ways and means of speech interaction; adequacy
 of selection of available speech skills, their application in speech activity; orientation in a communication situation;
 complex, variable and creative application of speech and non-speech means in accordance with the set goal. Following
 the internal structure of the speech competence of preschool children in the educational process should make it more
 systematic and the results of this process easier to measure in their complex, integrative wholeness.
This article discusses the grammatical and functional features of some standard tools used in newspaper language. Newspaper standards are sometimes used exactly in the process of covering the material, sometimes with different lexical-grammatical means, with certain changes, and in various forms. This change is sometimes characterized by their expansion at the expense of various components, and in some cases, the loss of one of the components of the compound is observed. As a result of these changes, the enrichment of functional synonymous lines in the vocabulary system increases. In some of them, new semantic and formal reconstructions occur. In this way, vocabulary becomes richer. This, in turn, has an active influence on the development of syntactic synonymy. As a result of changes in language rules and syntactic norms, we observe that several different functional options have been created due to the fact that standard expressions are not repeated exactly the same way and the language possibilities are used effectively and appropriately for other purposes.
The article discusses the functioning of a concept from a linguosynergetic perspective as a spontaneous equipment of the structure of a homeostatic hierarchical complex organized as an open nonlinear system. The research is aimed to investigate the DEATH concept functioning from a linguosynergetic perspective and develop a model for understanding the synergistic interplay of linguistic and contextual factors in the conceptualization of death. To develop the main research hypothesis, general scientific methods like analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, abstraction, explanation, and description are used. This system is characterized as an open one because it constantly interacts with the external world and is nonlinear, meaning that it has various options for development at the bifurcation point, but only one is chosen. This continuous process of structuring is known as emergence, which means the concept can adapt to new meanings based on the realities of the world around it. Emergence is a result of the selforganizing mechanism, where the system is reorganized and spontaneously equipped with elements that allow it to move to a new level of operation, while maintaining balance by outputting information from the system’s boundaries. However, the system is also influenced by external factors, which can cause conflict and lead to further reorganization. As a result, the emergence process is ongoing and dynamic, with the structure being both a consequence and a cause of the system`s development. Thus, the principle of self-organization, which is the key concept of synergetics, is founded on the notion of instability. In essence, self-organization refers to the spontaneous emergence of order in a system, which results from the interactions and interrelationships between the system`s components. As such, the concept of self-organization is closely linked to the idea of nonlinearity, which posits that small changes in the system`s components can lead to significant changes in the system`s behavior as a whole. In other words, the behavior of the system as a whole is not simply a sum of the behaviors of its individual components, but is instead an emergent property that arises from the complex interactions between those components. The formation of a new system is not merely a sum of its individual parts. This is, due to the way in which the components of the system connect with one another, a phenomenon known as coherence. Coherence acts as a means to coordinate the various components of the system so that they work together in harmony, rather than independently. Additionally, the system`s components change at different rates and are of varying quality. This process is responsible for the system`s evolutionary nature and reinforces the principle of evolutionary holism in synergetics. This principle is concerned with understanding the mechanisms by which the system`s components come together to form a whole. In summary, the concept is formed in the human mind through a collection of thoughts, which can take on various forms such as lexical and semantic fields, modes, frames, and emotions. The specific form the concept takes depends on the level at which the bifurcation point impacts the fluctuation of the conceptual structure and discursive environment. Essentially, the concept arises from a system that is in an unstable state and is subject to fluctuations that threaten its structure. When the system reaches the bifurcation point, the individual selects one of the possible models for the concept`s development, and this results in a transition from “chaos” to “order” as the concept gains verbal representation. The activation of a concept in one`s cognition occurs at different intensities and is dependent on several factors. These factors include the individual’s level of knowledge about the concept, their principles and beliefs, their interests, their life experiences, as well as extralinguistic factors. The activation of a concept can occur in varying degrees, with some individuals having a more profound understanding of a concept compared to others. Additionally, the process of concept activation can be influenced by external factors such as societal norms and cultural beliefs. Therefore, the way in which a person perceives and activates a concept is a complex and individualized process, influenced by both internal and external factors.
The article characterizes the issue of correlation and demarcation of the terminological concepts “slang”, “jargon” and “sociolect” and emphasizes the need to define the terms “professional language”, “sublanguage”, “sublanguage”. The concept and structure of the communicative portrait are defined and the main features of the communicative portraits of the driver and dispatcher are defined. The characteristics of drivers’ speech are given, with the highlighting of slang elements in their speech and explanations of possible options for understanding and translating professionalism in drivers’ speech. The purpose of the study is to analyze the professional speech of English-speaking drivers in the USA and to develop and identify the main features of the communicative portrait of an English-speaking driver. The object of the study is the professional speech of English-speaking carriers (dispatchers and drivers), and the subject is slangisms in the professional speech of English-speaking drivers and the principles of creating an electronic dictionary of their slang. The source base includes recordings of the dispatcher’s conversations with English-speaking drivers (in total, more than 30 hours of audio recordings were analyzed), text messages in the corporate chat (more than 500 messages). Truck drivers from the USA were selected as communicators, whose logistics of movement and work are regulated by the online dispatcher. In general, the speech of five drivers is characterized based on the personal professional experience of the author of the study for the year 2023. Illustrative material is provided with the author’s translation into Ukrainian and relevant comments. It has been proven that the communicative portrait of an English-speaking driver covers the following features: speech behavior (style, lexical content and tone of voice, individual features of speech, pronunciation of sounds, pace, clarity, volume, etc.); the ability to express thoughts, the ability to listen and understand others; compliance with the accepted norms of communication, traditions, interaction skills in a certain culture or environment; responding to various communicative situations; psychological type of communicator.
This study aims atexpressing the difficulties that the media have in the spelling of the Albanian language. More precisely, the written media, that is, the newspapers that are published in physical form and those that are only found in the online version. The unified orthography of a language, in our case of the Albanian language, is a term of the crystallization of the national literary norm in all the main chains of the phonetic, word formation,grammatical, and lexical structure. It reflects the current state and general trends of the development of our literary language. Today's orthography aims for further unification of the national literary language norm on the basis of the common forms that have been adopted and are being adopted by it. Given that the basic principle of Albanian orthography is the phonetic principle followed by the grammatical one, and seeing the constant spelling errors of the speakers and those who write in the Albanian language, weexamined a daily newspaper, which has many readers and has a huge impact on Albanian speakers.In order to see the most frequent spelling errors, we will outline and analyze the wrong cases and give the correct forms based on the Albanian standard. Thus, from the results that will be brought, we will see the greatest difficulties faced by journalists of this daily newspaper, as well as their challenges on using the correct forms.
The article deals with the problems of synonymy in verbal dialect lexis based on the material of Smolensk business writing of the 17 th – 18 th centuries, the time of buoyant lexical norms formation in the Russian literary language. The author draws attention to the fact that some of the dialect verbs do not enter synonymic relations and researches into the reasons for the absence of their synonyms. Extensive lexicographic material of the Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian and Polish languages was involved, as well as data from monographic studies on the topic. It has been proved that this is often not only the original dialectal lexemes, but also the lexis borrowed from Western European languages through the Polish transmitter language, which can be considered a specific feature of Smolensk verbal synonymy in the period of the 16 th – 18 th centuries. The causes for restricted inclusion of dialect verbs into synonymic relations are the following: the semantics of dialect verbs contains some additional shades of meaning, which are not represented in the lexis of the literary language, they are expressed with the help of descriptive means, for instance, particularizing words; words viewed as potential synonyms, are noted to demonstrate hyponymic relations; the semantics of dialect lexis reveals diffusive character. The cases are described, when unclear meaning of the dialect verb in the limited context prevents it from the inclusion into a particular synonymic row. The dynamics of dialect lexis is characterized. It is represented in the loss or preserving some lexical units in the lexis of modern Smolensk dialects.
NeurAlly-Decomposed Oracle (NADO) is a powerful approach for controllable generation with large language models. It is designed to avoid catastrophic forgetting while achieving guaranteed convergence to an entropy-maximized closed-form optimal solution with reasonable modeling capacity. Despite the success, several challenges arise when apply NADO to a wide range of scenarios. Vanilla NADO suffers from gradient vanishing for low-probability control signals and is highly reliant on a regularization to satisfy the stochastic version of Bellman equation. In addition, the vanilla implementation of NADO introduces a few additional transformer layers, suffering from a limited capacity especially compared to other finetune-based model adaptation methods like LoRA. In this paper, we propose a improved version of the NADO algorithm, namely DiNADO (norm-Disentangled NeurAlly-Decomposed Oracles), which improves the performance of the NADO algorithm through disentangling the step-wise global norm over the approximated oracle $R$-value for all potential next-tokens, allowing DiNADO to be combined with finetuning methods like LoRA. We discuss in depth how DiNADO achieves better capacity, stability and flexibility with both empirical and theoretical results. Experiments on formality control in machine translation and the lexically constrained generation task CommonGen demonstrates the significance of the improvements.
Background and Aim: Speech perception is an important auditory need. A test that can evaluate the function of the auditory brain in discovering consonants and understanding meanings in Persian language is necessary. Therefore, this study aims to determine the norm values of the Word-in-Noise Perception (WINP) test for Iranian people aged 18–25 years. Methods: In this study, participants were 101 people with normal hearing, stress level, night sleep, and mini-mental states. The measures were the 28-item general health questionnaire, mini-mental state examination, Petersburg sleep quality index, acoustic immittance assessment, pure tone audiometry, speech reception threshold evaluation, and the WINP test with Homotonic-Monosyllabic Words (HMWs). Data analysis was performed using the Mann-Whitney U test. Results: The mean scores of the WINP test at three Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNRs) of 0, +5, +10 dB were 53.14%, 68.15%, 88.70% for the right ear; 52.95%, 67.83%, 88.13% for the left ear; and 53%, 68%, 88% for both ears, respectively. The mean scores of the right ear were higher than those of the left ear, and the women’s scores were higher compared to men; however, the differences were not statically significant. Conclusion: By using the WINP test with the HMWs, it is possible to evaluate the function of the auditory brain in understanding the consonants in Persian language. The WINP test scores are similar between both ears and both sexes. Keywords: Speech perception; noise; lexical; semantic
Abstract The variety of Italian spoken in Bolzano (South Tyrol) represents a singular case in Italy, because it is not the result of a long-term contact between standard and Italo-Romance dialects but rather the outcome of a process of levelling and koineization. In such sociolinguistic scenario, it is interesting to study phonological variability in Bolzano Italian with the aim of understanding which language varieties have possibly played a role as models from a sociolinguistic point of view. The purpose of our exploratory study is to characterize this variety within the spectrum of variation between the standard and the regional norm. In our analysis, we will focus on the set of mid vowels as a window to understand which variety of Italian BI most closely resembles. Through a corpus-based analysis, we will investigate the phonological distribution of mid vowels (for both Italian and Tyrolean speakers), in order to explore whether it can be explained on the basis of a contextual or a lexical distribution.
Agrammatism in Russian language is understood as the production of an utterance with such violation of morphological and syntactic norms, by which the main means of expressing grammatical meanings are word order and (in oral speech) intonation. Government and coordination are supplanted by parataxis, the frequency of the use of the nominative case increases. This is a situation when there are no proper means of connection between words in an utterance (inflectional morphemes, prepositions, conjunctions, particles), and the utterance itself becomes “crumbly”. The factual material for the paper is extracted from three communication areas: colloquial speech, special texts (commercial and technical advertising) and fiction. It is shown that there are general linguistic grounds that explain the development of this phenomenon. These are: a) expectation on the lexical semantics of words and the combinatorial connections inherent in them; b) grammatical semantics, represented by the linear order of words (and in oral speech – by intonation also); c) support from social conditions, personal characteristics of those who communicate, everyday context, paralinguistic means. The special functional and stylistic role of names in the syntax of the phrase is noted – in their opposition to the verb. In the facts of agrammatism, the interaction of language means with each other is manifested. In this regard, particular prerequisites and conditions are systematized that contribute to the emergence of agrammatic constructions in the Russian language – such as lemmatization, compression, ellipsis, the use of loan-words, etc. A general conclusion is made that agrammatism is not so much a fact of text destruction, but situational (discursive) conditional use of the diverse functionality of the language.
Even though Dutch has been the official language of government and education in Suriname since 1876 and about 50% of the Surinamese households reports speaking Dutch at home, defining or delineating Surinamese Dutch remains highly problematic. ‘Typical’ Surinamese Dutch lexical, phonetic, morphological and syntactic features have been identified, but it is unclear to what degree these features are used (cf. de Kleine 2013, 855), by whom, how they correlate with social, stylistic and other parameters and whether they are accepted as standard Dutch by the Surinamese. The present study addresses this lacuna by quantitatively analyzing a feature often considered to be typical of Surinamese Dutch: the use of the subordinating conjunction als in dependent yes/no-clauses (e.g. Ik weet niet als hij komt, ‘I don’t know whether he’s coming’). While in Netherlandic and Belgian Standard Dutch the conjunction of is expected, the conjunction als is said to be typical of Surinamese Dutch. An analysis of the distribution of als in two corpora – a new corpus of spoken Surinamese Dutch and the Surinamese component of the Corpus Hedendaags Nederlands – however indicates that the subordinator of is actually dominant in Suriname: in the written corpus, with mainly texts of linguistic professionals, als is attested in only 7% of 7722 relevant clauses, whereas in the spoken corpus – which contains the speech of 22 highly educated Creole women – its frequency is higher, viz. 44% (n=161). Machine learning based multivariate analyses show that the variation between als and of is mostly individually determined. In the spoken dataset, the individual speaker emerges as overpowering predictor, and interestingly, the interspeaker variation is difficult to explain in terms of the speakers’ language backgrounds or age. Linguistic variables such as the matrix verb, the polarity of the sentence and the frequency of the matrix verb have little predictive power. In the written dataset, the interauthor variation could not be estimated due to methodological issues, but here too, the studied linguistic variables have hardly any explanatory power. In the discussion, it is argued that the considerable individual variation might be a sign of endoglossic standardization, whereby the conjunction als is establishing itself slowly as part of the Surinamese Dutch standard norm.
The author of this article is concerned about the preservation of the culture of speech in modern mass media (press, radio, television, Internet sites, social networks) and discuss its main causes and consequences. The relevance of the research is due to the fact that scientists pay attention to the study of the peculiarities of the functioning of the media language and the problems of its deviation from the literary language norm. The purpose of the study is to identify the influence of the media language on the state of the Kazakh language as a whole and to find out how and to what extent this influence occurs, to analyze errors in the composition of the Kazakh media text. With the help of the research material, it is possible to determine the level of changes in the Kazakh language by conducting grammatical and lexical analysis. The main hypothesis is that errors in the language of the media affect the Kazakh language through the media, including through social networks, at all linguistic levels, especially by changing grammatical and lexical rules. The theoretical significance of the study is that the speech practice of modern mass media is actively developing, and, on the one hand, the number of text materials appearing in the field of mass media is increasing, and on the other hand, these texts have many errors that affect the status of language and speech, which are not so obvious to society. These consequences are characterized by the appearance of new newspapers and magazines, completely different in content and nature of the development of speech culture of new TV and radio programs, etc. In the speech practice of society as a whole, the share of speech products of mass media is increasing, the importance of mass media texts in the public consciousness is increasing: at present, the main importance of literary texts is indisputable. All of the above in this study boils down to the fact that a high level of speech culture in the field of mass media should be provided not only by linguists, but also by practitioners who form the vocabulary of the language of mass media. The study used general scientific methods of analysis, synthesis and deduction in the process of studying and systematizing theoretical material.
The paper examines borrowed lexical units that entered the Russian language from Arabic, which were identified during the analysis of various dictionaries of foreign words. The reception of these lexemes into the Russian literary language and sub-standard vocabulary occurred in different time periods. Arabisms enriched the language system, gave names to lexemes belonging to different lexico-thematic groups. Penetrating into the Russian language, such borrowings have been fully or partially adapted, phonetically preserved or changed their Arabic pronunciation. The aim of the study is to identify the characteristic phonetic features that emerge during the reception of Arabisms. The scientific novelty of the study is determined by the fact that the correspondences and discrepancies between Russian and Arabic vowels and consonants of the lexemes entering the language remain little studied. It is the first time that the phonetic systems of the Russian and Arabic languages have been analysed involving the borrowed vocabulary unused in other studies. The results of the study have shown that unlike the Arabic words themselves, the Arabisms included in the Russian language system are characterised in some cases by the devoicing of consonant sounds, in others by the adaptation to the norms of the Russian phonetic system, in yet other cases by the preservation of the phonetic form of the lexeme.
The results of the comparison of lexical features of Russian speech of four groups of respondents are presented: 1) adult Russian-German bilinguals aged 35-50 who moved to Germany in the 1990-2010s; 2) their children aged 10-15 who were born in Germany or moved to Germany at an early age; 3) adult monolinguals aged 35-50 living in St. Petersburg; 4) their children aged 10-15. The relevance of the research is, on the one hand, in the importance of studying the state of the Russian language in the families of Russian compatriots living abroad, its preserving and developing, and on the other hand, in the need to supplement the existing data on the speech development of bilinguals with new facts. The research is aimed at comparing lexical features of Russian speech of two generations of bilinguals in Germany and monolinguals in Russia. The material of the research includes transcripts of picture story recordings from the book of M. Mayer “Frog, where are you?”. The methods of the research are observation, data systematization and statistical processing, comparison, quantitative and qualitative interpretation of data. The authors found out the average proportion of lexical norms violations in the stories of informants and among them the proportion of word substitutions, word omissions and superfluous words insertion. The types of word substitutions, their percentage, and their reasons were determined. The similarity of lexical norms violations in the speech of children (bilingual and monolingual), conditioned by general laws of speech development, was revealed. The conclusion is made about the relatively stable Russia lexical system in the diaspora, at least in the two groups of Russian-German bilinguals studied, and about its similarity with the lexical system of monolinguals. Some parts of the lexical system of the Russian language of bilingual children aged 10-15 years undergo changes, but these changes do not violate its integrity.
<em>The lexical gender in specialist communication is examined in this essay. In a 10 million word corpus of written Business English, styles of address, professional titles, and the phrase "generic man" were the main topics of analysis. The results are discussed after a brief introduction and discussion of the literature on both gender in specialized communication and related corpus-based views of lexical gender in General English. Results were inconsistent. On the one hand, the "male-as-norm" notion supports common gender stereotypes. We know that in everyday language, gender is not talked about, not even mentioned. In other words, it is not the type of information that is predicated of a referent. It is not often uttered such statements as:’she’sa woman’or ‘my computer is a thing‘. These sentences are perfectly grammatical of course, and they make sense, but they are not uttered. Or if they are gender nous such as ‘woman’or ‘man’are not used to convey information about gender but some implicature, often close to stereotype:’She spends a fortune on perfume.–Well, what do you expect, she’sa woman’.<strong>[1]</strong> For instance, there are more than 100 references to men than women in the corpus for each woman. On the other side, proponents of non-sexist English have also had an impact on written Business English. For instance, Ms is more frequently used than Mrs. and Miss, supporting the notion that Ms is more appropriate in professional contexts. The final section of this article explores the positive effects that the study’s research findings may have on business English instruction.</em>
As a result of language contacts in the lexical system of the Russian language, borrowed vocabulary builds a new class of words. The study of linguistic convergence, which determines the process of borrowing and further adaptation of foreign vocabulary, cannot take place in isolation from the fact of the influence of the norms of one language system on another. This article is devoted to the study of borrowed words in media texts. The purpose of this work is the implementation of a comprehensive linguistic study of the mechanisms of language convergence and the analysis of new words functioning in the mass media of Kazakhstan. The material of the study is the newspaper “Kazakhstanskaya Pravda” of 2018. 5000 borrowed words were written out and analyzed by the continuous sampling method. All borrowings are divided into two groups — “mode of life” and “education”. A large percentage difference indicates that political, economic relations and the development of the business industry and technology are gaining the main positions in the group “mode of life”. Based on the analysis of the proofreading of loanwords 47 thematic groups were derived on the pages of newspapers. The classification of thematic groups shows us in which spheres of society borrowed words are in great demand and function. The most frequently used words and terms were related to politics, economics, business, medicine, profession, quality, art, technology, Internet and psychology
The article is devoted to the problem of practical implementation of lexical, grammatical, orthographic and punctuation norms in connection with the strengthening of tendencies towards the feminization of language practice, particularly in the business and educational spheres. Attention was drawn to the dynamics of changes in the “Ukrainian orthography” of 2019 regarding the implementation of the norm of formation of names of persons of the female gender by profession and type of occupation. On the material of the texts of educational projects, platforms that became the basis for the organization of training or professional development in real time, such as “On the lesson”, “Vseosvita”, “Prometheus”, “Umity”, the peculiarities of the implementation of the specified trend were observed. Deviations from the lexical, punctuation and orthographic norms regarding the writing of the latest complex abbreviated names of persons by profession, field of activity, position, nationality, etc. were noted. Systematic deviations from the norm in the practice of using round brackets and slashes in the official and business sphere of communication, in particular in the texts of informational messages, in educational materials, were revealed.
BACKGROUND: This study aimed at developing and standardizing the Telephone Language Screener (TLS), a novel, disease-nonspecific, telephone-based screening test for language disorders. METHODS: The TLS was developed in strict pursuance to the current psycholinguistic standards. It comprises nine tasks assessing phonological, lexical-semantic and morpho-syntactic components, as well as an extra Backward Digit Span task. The TLS was administered to 480 healthy participants (HPs), along with the Telephone-based Semantic Verbal Fluency (t-SVF) test and a Telephone-based Composite Language Index (TBCLI), as well as to 37 cerebrovascular/neurodegenerative patients-who also underwent the language subscale of the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status (TICS-L). An HP subsample was also administered an in-person language battery. Construct validity, factorial structure, internal consistency, test-retest and inter-rater reliability were tested. Norms were derived via Equivalent Scores. The capability of the TLS to discriminate patients from HPs and to identify, among the patient cohort, those with a defective TICS-L, was also examined. RESULTS: The TLS was underpinned by a mono-component structure and converged with the t-SVF (p <.001), the TBCLI (p <.001) and the in-person language battery (p =.002). It was internally consistent (McDonald's ω = 0.67) and reliable between raters (ICC = 0.99) and at retest (ICC = 0.83). Age and education, but not sex, were predictors of TLS scores. The TLS optimally discriminated patients from HPs (AUC = 0.80) and successfully identified patients with an impaired TICS-L (AUC = 0.92). In patients, the TLS converged with TICS-L scores (p = 0.016). DISCUSSION: The TLS is a valid, reliable, normed and clinically feasible telephone-based screener for language impairment.
This article is devoted to the study of linguoecological problems of modern educational media. The study material is presented by articles from Russian, British and American media of the beginning of the 21st century, selected by a continuous sample of lexical and phraseological units from the entire variety of educational media texts. The purpose of the work is realized using a set of methods: descriptive method, interpretive analysis, lexical-semantic analysis, lexical-grammatical analysis, stylistic analysis, content analysis, elements of discursive analysis. The relevance of the studied problem is determined by the increasing interest in the anthropological approach in media communication, the importance of studying the roles of the teacher and student in the media educational space, the need to establish linguoecological norms, solve linguoecological problems in the educational media resource of Russia, the USA, and Great Britain. As a result of the analysis of educational media, the existence of five main problems was revealed: 1) destruction, fixing negative language means and negative emotions, 2) deecologization, reflecting a violation of the nature of communication, 3) deformation within the framework of communicative and personal/interpersonal processes, 4) degradation of the communicative personality and communication itself, 5) dehumanization in the social interaction of communicants. As the analysis of the actual material showed, the desire for creative communication in the educational media resource demonstrates the creative self-realization of communicants and generates negative communication, destructive discursive and social processes. It has been established that it is necessary to strengthen actions to ensure the linguistic security of the educational media space to achieve the quality, ethical conditioning, environmental friendliness of media in the field of educational activities in Russian, American and British linguocultures.
This article is about borrowed words from Mongolian into Russian lexical found in different sources: ancient and modern language dictionary, local dialects, dictionary of foreign words, Russian- Mongolian dictionary, ancient Mongolian dictionaries, translations from the Secret History of Mongolia, Russian National Corpus [https://ruscorpora.ru] There are 18,000 words and phrases in the Russian Dictionary of Origins, from which 125 words or about 0.6 percent are marked as Mongolian, indicating the historical relationship between the Russian and Mongolian people, as well as the interaction between the two languages. Words borrowed from Mongolian to Russian are transformed adapting to the phonetic, grammatical, punctuation, and semantic norms of the target language. Many of these words in the Russian language are recognizable in form and remain old structure. Mongolian words borrowed into Russian are still actively used modern Mongolian referring to the Mongolian dictionary by Ya. Tsevel. The use of Mongolian words in Russian is declining, and it is possible to say with certainty the time of use.
The article analyzes the recommendations for the verbal design of a public speech, presented in Internet content: on websites, in videos of famous coaches. Despite a long history, rhetoric continues to develop, acquiring new forms in new conditions. Rhetoric is considered not only in scientific and educational literature, but also in Internet sources nowadays. In the titles of these sources, the term “rhetoric” itself does not occur, and modern similar concepts of “speechwriting” and “storytelling” are not used, usually the authors use combinations of “oratory”, “oratory” or descriptive constructions such as “skill in public speaking”. Most of the recommendations relate to the psychological aspects of rhetoric, as well as speech techniques. Of the requirements relating to the actual linguistic side of public speaking, one can name colloquialism (and its lexical and syntactic manifestations), dialogic nature (interrogative sentences, immediacy of reaction to the audience's remarks), brevity, understandability, compliance with the norms of speech culture. Such recommendations are the result of a change in the relationship between the speaker and the audience, the emergence of new genres that require the presentation of information in a very short time, the emergence of the possibility of visual accompaniment of the speech. One can note the shift in the focus of rhetoric from linguistic problems proper to the field of psychology.
The article is devoted to the relationship between the linguistic and cultural aspects of communicative behavior and their consideration in the content of teaching Russian as a foreign language. The object of our study is the norms and traditions of everyday behavior of Russian and Chinese culture representatives in the field of public food service. The purpose of the study is to compare Russian and Chinese traditions of communicative behavior in the gastronomic field, to determine the level of ethnocultural and linguistic knowledge of international students in this study area, to identify the relationship between their level of knowledge and the development of the students’ intercultural communicative competence, which is an integral characteristic of the personality. We aim to substantiate the need to take into account the features of the national communicative behavior in the field of public food service in the content of teaching the Russian language to Chinese students. The study was conducted using the methods of the analysis of scientific and educational literature on the research problem, the survey of 962 students from higher educational institutions of China, mathematical processing of the obtained data and a comparative analysis. Quantitative and substantive processing of the survey data showed considerable differences in the norms and traditions of Russian and Chinese culture representatives in this study area, a low level of students’ ethnocultural knowledge, a high level of students’ lexical knowledge in the field of public food service and cultural barriers affecting the level of Chinese students’ intercultural communicative competence development. The article comes to the conclusion about the need to take into account the communicative-behavioral aspect of everyday life culture and the norms and traditions of Russian and Chinese cultures in the field of public food service in teaching Russian as a foreign language. Research prospects are connected with the development of the educational interactive platform “Gastronomic trip through time”.
In this paper we threw light upon the concept of emotional phenomena, clarified the definition of “emotions”, reconstructed the emotional sphere and emotional experience of Swedish Queen Christina, outlined the corpus of lexical units of the Queen’s emotions through the prism of the morphological criterion and systematized thematically. The relationship between the development of the Queen’s emotions, wartime, spiritual crisis in the family circle and court behav- ior is traced. Emphasis is placed on the dominance of emotional patterns in the semantic structure of emotional experience, natural and artificial expressions of emotions by the Queen are identified. The most relevant emotional patterns include sadness — joy, joy — cunning, fear — hope, hope — faith, anger — disappointment — calm. It is established that the emotional experience of the “elite” layer affects the negation of the Queen’s individual emotions (pride, ad- miration), their identification, form and content. The expression of the Queen’s emotions is also connected with the internal and external politics of Sweden in the 17th century, the rules and norms of royal etiquette, which led to the elevation of Queen Christina to the status of a goddess. The juxtaposition of natural phe- nomena and emotions affected the hierarchy, signs of modality, gradation, se- mantics, negation, linguistics of emotions. The presence of a value system in the strata of the Swedish population allows predicting and simulating the influence of emotions on the behavior of the queen and, conversely, on the behavior of sub- ordinates. The differentiation of emotional phenomena contributed to the birth of lexical and grammatical names. Two main partial language categories are distinguished: full and incomplete. The full-meaning part-speech category in- cludes: verb, noun, adjective, adverb, pronoun, the incomplete part-speech cat- egory includes emotional exclamations and emotional particles. The adjective often undergoes functional reorientation and functions as an adverb in speech.
The paper considers benefits and drawbacks of the Picture Naming Test (PNT) as a diagnostic method suggesting the ways to improve its diagnostic and research validity. Although this test is popular in both national and international neuropsychological assessment and research practice, its use is largely due to tradition and practical convenience. However, theoretical underpinnings for its effectiveness are not sufficiently represented in the pertinent literature, which determines the relevance of the study. The major objective of the paper is to consider the PNT as a research technique from the point of view of psycholinguistics, cognitive science, and corpus linguistics and to propose integrated approaches for the further development of these tests. The material comprises picture naming tests developed for the Russian and English languages. The study sets the following aims: 1) to define the main features of PNT and the principles of its application viewed from a historical perspective; 2) to identify the theoretical foundations (linguistic and neuropsychological) for its use as a diagnostic tool; 3) to highlight the problematic aspects of the method; 4) to suggest possible ways to eliminate them. To accomplish these tasks, various methods of corpus linguistics are applied throughout the article. The historical outline of PNT development suggests that the current design might stem from earlier contexts of use. A review of existing models of lexical access provides a theoretical basis for the test in its current form and suggests possible avenues for its development grounded in experimental research, advances in linguistics and big data analysis. A separate section of the article presents critique of the most popular tests. Finally, the analysis of the existing English and Russian tests through the corpus-based methodology clearly demonstrates the need for more detailed norming and stimuli selection. By way of conclusion the authors outline the principles of designing Picture Naming Tests for specific purposes and put forward a step-by-step algorithm that enables careful selection of the necessary indicators and parameters.
The link between linguistic deviation and translation techniques is enshrined in the conventionality of language use and communication. Linguistic deviation occurs when a text ignores conventional norms of a language in order to communicate a certain artistic merit and draw attention to the meaning of the message. The main objective of this paper is to interrogate how translation techniques used on bilingual billboard slogans in Cameroon lead to linguistic deviation and how such deviations affect communication and sociolinguistics. The corpus of this paper is composed of fifteen bilingual billboard slogans purposively selected from different parts of Cameroon. In terms of methodology, the data was collected by taking pictures of billboards and extracting their slogans. A qualitative descriptive method of document analysis was used with the help of Leech’s linguistic deviation theory and Jakobson’s communication functions. Regarding the results, the study identified graphological, semantical, grammatical and lexical deviations on the selected billboards caused by translation techniques like literal, reduction, adaptation, borrowing, discursive creation, amplification and transposition. As a result of linguistic deviation, the messages that were finally conveyed through bilingual billboards looked absurd and sometimes nonsensical. The paper recommends that certified translators should be employed to translate billboard slogans from French to English.
The aim of the study is to identify the innovative methods of artistic cognition characteristic of poets in the postmodern era. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that the author identifies such methods of artistic cognition as artistic fractal, chaotic thinking, cognition through linguistic structure and interaction with the reader, the functioning of which is considered based on the American language poetry of the late 20th century. The specific characteristics of the postmodern poets’ creative thinking, expressed in a special language of lyrical texts, are determined. As a result, it has been found that the chaotic nature of modern creative thinking is realized by such linguistic means as paradox, oxymoron, paronomasia, an extended metaphor, a semantic flow, a line break, etc. One of the forms of the chaotic nature as a method of artistic cognition are fractals, represented at the structural level as complex graphic systems. Cognition through linguistic structure is realized both at the lexical (paronomasia, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox) and the grammatical (a line break, violation of grammatical norms, use of graphic symbols and drawings) level. Interaction with the reader is carried out in the course of solving logical riddles represented by paradoxes.
It is generally known that the importance of the formation of foreign language academic literacy is the most significant component of successful academic communication of a future specialist’s research activities. The IELTS essay is one of the most effective ways to practise foreign language academic literacy. The article explores lexical and grammatical features in academic essays among Russian bilinguals. The purpose of the article is to give practical recommendations to the students in order to avoid and minimize lexical and grammatical errors. The authors have done the research of the linguistic peculiarities of this genre. The article investigates scientists’ views concerning the same issue. The object of the research is English written academic discourse of native speakers, and the subject of the paper is the grammatical and lexical structures of academic essays. The research is also based on an objective analysis: two native English IELTS examiners were invited as experts. They identified lexical and grammatical errors and corrected them. The results showed that the most common mistakes were mistakes in complex grammar constructions (tenses, word order, etc.), cases of redundancy, incorrect use of connecting elements of discourse, violations of stylistic norms, irrelevant sentence variety, incorrect use of vocabulary, improper collocations. The authors have come to a conclusion that systemizing such data enables English language teachers to develop an effective methodology that can be used to overcome most lexical and grammatical mistakes.
The transregional and inter-Asian turns in Asian studies have overtaken Indonesian studies’ earlier preoccupation with the question of Java's modernization and the nation-state. Departing from its Java-centricity, and casting their frame more widely across the region, scholars have turned creatively to genealogies, laws, and religious texts to reveal radically different modalities of sovereignty, piety, and cosmopolitanisms. The nimble juxtaposition of Sanskritic, Arabic, and Pali texts with their Javanese, Malay, and Tamil counterparts has allowed scholars to make important breakthroughs in the historiography of transregional Asia over the long duration.1 If the potential interpretative payoff for such translingual historiographical work is clear, the linguistic hurdle is nevertheless just as daunting.Tom Hoogervorst's Language Ungoverned is the latest addition to this expanding corpus of linguistically inflected transregional and interdisciplinary histories, and the first with a Sinitic focus. Although ostensibly an ethnolinguistic history of an Indonesian minority group, the author situates his cast of actors, the entrepreneurial creole Chinese print entrepreneurs and reading publics, within the broader canvas of linguistic interactions between Southern China and the Malay-Javanese world. The commercialized Sino-Malay print culture that flourished in the first half of twentieth-century Dutch colonial Batavia (Jakarta), Semarang, and Surabaya, he shows, cannot be understood apart from colonial ethnographic Eurocentric knowledge projects, new modern experiments emerging from the Chinese homeland since the 1910s, and print, linguistic, political, and consumerist developments occurring simultaneously among other Peranakan Chinese in Singapore, Penang, and Medan.Over a breathtaking sweep of space and time, the author, in chapters 1 and 2, unfolds the history of linguistic contact between the southern Chinese and the Malay world since the fifteenth century. He shows that from at least the 1400s, Malay had served as the lingua franca of encounters on both the southern China coast and in the Malay-Javanese world. In speech, a “Low” or “Bazaar” Malay emerged among the Chinese (and other resident alien groups), in counterdistinction with the “High” Malay of the colonial and Malay polities. This pidgin language was rendered further diverse by frequent “lexical borrowing and code-mixing involving Hokkien, Dutch, Javanese, and/or Sundanese... and other Sinitic languages” (72). Creole Chinese writing mirrored their hybridized spoken language giving rise to what the author calls an “orthographical Babel” in their print culture (70).The story of Sino-Malay print entrepreneurialism begins proper in chapter 3. Situating it at the “crossroads of intra-Asian connections and technological advancements,” the author traces its emergence and success to its capacity to thrive on “its diversity” (79). These print entrepreneurs “engaged in journalism, translation, newspaper editing, fiction writing, and the printing and publication of books” (79). Between the 1880s and 1940s, they delivered to the hungry Chinese-Indonesian reading public whatever was deemed salable—stories about sex and vice, traditional Chinese tales, international news, Chinese nationalism, and advertisements for the latest fashions and consumer items. The only element that remained consistent was the ungovernable diversity of the hybridized Sino-Malay language and speech.The final two chapters (4 and 5) unpack the competing expressions of material culture and linguistic norms of the Chinese-Indonesians between the 1910s and 1930s. In chapter 4, Hoogervorst reveals how Chineseness was in flux through debates, often misogynistically targeting Dutch-educated Chinese women, about attire, medicine, and cuisine. In the final and most original chapter of the book, the author draws out the “humoristic and the invective” in the use of language and speech forms in the Sino-Malay vernacular press. By zooming in on how writers made use of “a vast array of imitating, lampooning, punning, swearing, and other manifestations of translingual creativity,” the author shows how the repressed linguistic community continued to bicker among themselves, even as they took potshots against the colonial racial hierarchy (126).Claudine Salmon's foundational Literature in Malay by the Chinese of Indonesia: A Provisional Annotated Bibliography made clear, in a shocking way, the extent to which the volume of Sino-Malay print culture far exceeded what the colonial literacy promotion agency, Balai Pustaka, was producing contemporaneously.2 Yet, until Hoogervorst's Language Ungoverned, it was often difficult to grasp Sino-Malay print culture's historical and cultural significance in more concise terms. This book's brilliance lies in the author's insistence on telling the story of Sino-Malay print culture in its widest possible framing, not only as a product of and for Indonesia but also as a network of connections across Southeast Asia and other Asian regions beyond.In his closing epilogue, the author champions the view that Sino-Malay print culture ought to be accepted as “an important historical monument” for the Indonesian nation-state. This is already happening, as postauthoritarian Indonesia has reembraced, in fits and starts, creolized Chineseness as one of its patchwork of minority cultures. Language Ungoverned is a timely reminder, from the bottom up, of the cosmopolitan and regionalist orientation of everyday Indonesian society.Students of Asian societies will agree with Hoogervorst that “(a)ccess to (Asian) primary sources is a global concern” (159–60). One understated highlight of the book is the fact that it draws from the wealth of archival collections housed in the author's home institutions: The Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (KITLV) and Leiden University. Leiden now holds the most complete collection of Indonesian Sino-Malay print materials in the world. As we heed the author's call to preserve and digitize Asian primary sources of historical value, we should also look seriously at the example he and his institution have set for us.
This project investigates English–Spanish codeswitching in internet memes posted to the Facebook page, We are mitú (mitú), and analyzes how lexical insertions and quotatives contribute to the enregisterment of linguistic patterns and the construction of collective identity among U.S. Latinx millennials in virtual social spaces. Data include instances of lexical insertion (n = 280) and quotative mixed codes (n = 114) drawn from a collected corpus of 765 image–text memes. The most frequent lexical insertions included food items (e.g., elote and pozole), kinship terms (e.g., abuelita and tía), and culturally specific artifacts or practices (e.g., quinceañera and lotería), which reflect biculturalism and rely on a shared set of references for the construction of a group identity. Additionally, the quotatives in the data construct Spanish-speaking characterological figures that enregister a particular brand of U.S. Latinx millennial identity that includes being bilingual, having Spanish-speaking parents, and having strong ties to Latinx culture. Overall, this work highlights not only internet memes as a vehicle for enregisterment, but also, and more importantly, how the language resources employed within them work to enregister linguistic and cultural norms of U.S. Latinx millennials, and thereby, play a role in identity construction in virtual social spaces.
The article discusses the problem of publishing regional historical dictionaries, which have not been practically compiled recently. The necessity of such works for the historical base of modern regional dictionaries of folk govors is substantiated. It is noted that regional dictionaries significantly replenish the
 chief of the main ongoing publication – the dictionary of the Russian language XVI–XVIII c. The methods of filing information in regional lexicographic works on the historical lexicology of the Russian language are described. Attention is drawn to the relationship between dialectology and historical lexicology. The significance of historical regional lexicographic works for the period of the formation of national lexical norms, the Russian language in XVI–XVIII centuries is especially emphasized. The possibility and desirability of the inclusion of anthroponymic vocabulary in such dictionaries, for the foundations of anthroponyms may contain a unique dialective material that is not survived in the form of nominal names. All issues are considered on the material of the regional lexicography of Smolensk Territory, one of the Western regions of Russia, which has features of historical and cultural development. Theoretical provisions are illustrated by the analysis of anthroponyms with dialectic bases representing the samples of reasoning about the fate of dialect words in the history of the language.