Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
18265 papers
A late 1990 survey found that most historical editors in the United States continue to use the computer primarily as a word processing tool to prepare texts and editorial apparatus. Among older projects, a migration from mainframe or mini-computers to PCs has been the norm. New developments in the field include the “Founding Fathers” CD-ROM project, the impending release of Version 2.0 of NLCindex, and a strong interest in the Text Encoding Initiative.
This paper deals with discourse analysis, with specific reference to the Linguistic and Logic Based Legal Expert System, LEX. In the LEX project we concentrated on a few arbitrarily selected court decisions, extracted the case descriptions, and then added the necessary background knowledge to our prototype expert system to analyze the case descriptions and to deduce the answers to some juridical questions. In this paper we present and comment on a typical discourse representation structure for an accident description in the corpus we studied.
Absorption (a trait capacity for total attentional involvement) was reported to increase during episodes of marijuana intoxication. Several subsets of the absorption scale items specifically characterized marijuana intoxication, and groups of users and nonusers showed differential affective involvement with these experiences. Additionally, within the drug-using group, a positive correlation between frequency of marijuana use and affective ratings of these experiences was found. The findings support the hypothesis that a specific type of alteration in consciousness that enhances capacity for total attentional involvement (absorption) characterizes marijuana intoxication, and that this enhancement may act as a reinforcer, possibly influencing future use.
An associative lexical net whose weights are computed on the basis of the co-occurrences of words using Hebb's rule has been built. The co-occurrences of word pairs are determined by shifting a window over a large body of text. To estimate the associative response to a given stimulus word, the corresponding node is activated and its activity is propagated in the net. The proposed model assumes that words with high activities after propagation correspond to the associative responses of human subjects. These predictions have been tested and confirmed using the association norms collected by Russel and Jenkins.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">></ETX>
One of the essential aspects is described of an expert system (called LEXICOGRAPHER), designed to supply the user with diverse information about Russian words, including bibliographic information concerning individual lexical entries. The lexical database of the system contains semantic information that cannot be elicited from the existing dictionaries. The priority is given to semantic features influencing lexical or grammatical co-occurrence restrictions. Possibilities are discussed of predicting selectional restrictions on the basis of semantic features of a word in the lexicon.
Children's self-reports of global life satisfaction and positive and negative affect were analyzed via principal components analysis. Consistent with multidimensional theories of subjective well-being, satisfaction ratings were differentiated from affective ratings, which provides further support for the construct validity of the life satisfaction measure (SLSS). Implications of the findings for the conceptualization and assessment of children's mental health are discussed.
This paper attempts to assess the progress made in computational stylistics dyring the course of the past twenty-five years. First, we discuss some theoretical notions of style, and then we sketch certain trends that emerge from relevant articles appearing in a variety of publications including conference proceedings and academic journals (other than CHum). The conclusion is that progress has been mixed.
This paper offers a brief survey of some important developments in the use of computers in making dictionaries and lexicons. Making a dictionary involves collecting the data, sorting and lemmatizing, editing and printing. Five major types of machine-readable dictionaries have developed from these procedures: Machine Readable Lexicons of individual authors, Machine Readable Dictionaries with codes for linguistic information, Machine Dictionaries with selected information, and Lexical Databases with lexical information abstracted from machine-readable dictionaries. The second edition of the QED is a machine-readable dictionary with codes that may provide the basis for a diachronic lexical database.
Abstract Leksikografie het grootliks met betekenis te doen, maar wat betekenis is en wat dit nie is nie, lê ten grondslag aan die eis dat die bestaande leksikografiese praktyk ingrypend herbesin moet word, veral in terme van verantwoorde semantiese norme wat moet meebring dat tussen leksikale betekenis en kontekstuele betekenis onderskei word. Agt basiese semantiese norme word bespreek. Lexicography deals mainly with meaning. Yet, what meaning is and what it is not, is crucial to the concern that practical lexicography is in dire need of a proper re-evaluation in terms of accountable semantic norms in order to distinguish clearly between lexical meaning and contextual meaning. Eight basic semantic norms are discussed.
650 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 67, NUMBER 3 (1991) a general linguistic audience are mixed with articles of interest for the specialist reader only. However, all the articles fit into the (probably too general) frame 'Writing system and orthography '. An unfortunate feature of the book is the absence of addresses and affiliations of the contributors. The editors' full addresses are given as Peking, China, and Kleve, Germany. [Jürgen Tesak, University of Freiburg.] Studies on the languages and the verbal behavior of the Pennsylvania Germans II. (Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, Beiheft 64.) Ed. by Werner Enninger, Joachim Raith, and Karl-Heinz Wandt. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1989. Pp. 170. Paper DM 54.00. This is the second volume of a collection of essays, the earlier volume, edited by Werner Enninger alone, appeared in 1986 in the same series. In the preface to Vol. I Enninger states that, 'although the linguistic varieties of the Pennsylvania Germans are among the best-documented and most widely explored languages of all ethnic minorities in the United States, the picture is far from complete' (ix). He observes further that Pennsylvania German offers a particularly good model for the study of such phenomena as substratum interference of LI and L2, of borrowing from L2 into Ll, and of language decay and death. There have been numerous earlier publications on Pennsylvania German, and some contributors to this volume have published widely on this subject elsewhere. The present volume, as well as a number of others, have received their impetus from the Essen Delaware Amish Project Team. in this collection of eleven papers, some are markedly weaker either in style or in content. Jonathan Watt's 'Ll interference in written L2: A comparison between the Pennsylvania German and Koine Greek situations' (103-15) contributes little of importance regarding Pennsylvania German. Rudolf Post's 'The lexicography of Palatinate German: Its relevance for Pennsylvania German research' (71-9) reads very much like an oral presentation. Heinz Kloss' death obviously precluded a more polished version of 'Sociolinguistic parallels between the Mennonite speakers of Pennsylvania German (or Pennsylfaanisch) and of Plautdietsch ' (117-24). Of the remaining articles, I found three particularly interesting: John Costello's 'Innovations increasing syntactic complexity in the native language of bilingual children from 5 to 10: The case for Pennsylvania German' (3-16); Marion Lois Huffines' 'The convergence of language death: The case of Pennsylvania German ' (17-28); and 'Rules of speaking and their mediation: The case of the Old Order Amish' (137-68). by Werner Enninger. John A. Hostetler, Joachim Raith, and Karl-Heinz Wandt. Costello demonstrates that, influenced by English (L2). the Pennsylvania German (Ll) of children shows an increased complexity in syntax rather than simplification. He finds that these new structures seem to become permanent in the children's Ll and explains this by the fact that linguistic variation in Pennsylvania German is considered normal by speakers, so parents don't correct any 'innovations'. Their main concern seems to be that children learn the dominant language, English, well. Huffines argues that the Pennsylvania German community has two linguistic norms for case usage, one among nonsectarians and another among the Amish and Mennonites. Among the nonsectarians the dative is being maintained, but Pennsylvania German itself is dying Among the sectarians the dative has been lost—not necessarily due to a convergence towards English, but rather from an internal development similar to the one in some Low German varieties. The article by Enninger et al. tries, from an ethnography -of-communication point of view, to shed light on the speaking rules in an Old Order Amish context, and to illustrate 'that speaking is rule-governed but subject to culture-specific constraints' (166). Apart from a few typographical errors and a line of text missing on p. 77. this is a well-edited volume which is interesting because of its varied subject matter. Judging by the rate ofpublishing on the topic and the fact that this area of investigation is far from exhausted, we can expect further collections edited by one or all of the present editors. [Wolfgang P. Ahrens, York University, Toronto.] Theorien vom Ursprung der Sprache. 2 vols. Ed. by Joachim Gessinger and Wolfert von Rahden. Berlin...
After 50 hours of small group participation during 9 weeks, 91 young adults rated each same-group member's conduct on SYMLOG's dimensions of dominance, friendliness, and task-orientedness. Earlier, they made similar ratings twice, several weeks apart, on separate measures of self-acceptance and acceptance of others. Individuals' mean SYMLOG dominance ratings by group peers correlated much more highly with aggregated ratings for self-acceptance (.83) than for other-acceptance (.02), while SYMLOG friendliness correlated more positively with acceptance of others (.85) than with self-acceptance (.05). Self-ratings yielded parallel, but weaker associations. After attenuation corrections, these divergent approaches to assessing the interpersonal domain's central dimensions yielded empirically equivalent results. Both methods provide measures relevant to small group processes.
650 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 67, NUMBER 3 (1991) a general linguistic audience are mixed with articles of interest for the specialist reader only. However, all the articles fit into the (probably too general) frame 'Writing system and orthography '. An unfortunate feature of the book is the absence of addresses and affiliations of the contributors. The editors' full addresses are given as Peking, China, and Kleve, Germany. [Jürgen Tesak, University of Freiburg.] Studies on the languages and the verbal behavior of the Pennsylvania Germans II. (Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, Beiheft 64.) Ed. by Werner Enninger, Joachim Raith, and Karl-Heinz Wandt. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1989. Pp. 170. Paper DM 54.00. This is the second volume of a collection of essays, the earlier volume, edited by Werner Enninger alone, appeared in 1986 in the same series. In the preface to Vol. I Enninger states that, 'although the linguistic varieties of the Pennsylvania Germans are among the best-documented and most widely explored languages of all ethnic minorities in the United States, the picture is far from complete' (ix). He observes further that Pennsylvania German offers a particularly good model for the study of such phenomena as substratum interference of LI and L2, of borrowing from L2 into Ll, and of language decay and death. There have been numerous earlier publications on Pennsylvania German, and some contributors to this volume have published widely on this subject elsewhere. The present volume, as well as a number of others, have received their impetus from the Essen Delaware Amish Project Team. in this collection of eleven papers, some are markedly weaker either in style or in content. Jonathan Watt's 'Ll interference in written L2: A comparison between the Pennsylvania German and Koine Greek situations' (103-15) contributes little of importance regarding Pennsylvania German. Rudolf Post's 'The lexicography of Palatinate German: Its relevance for Pennsylvania German research' (71-9) reads very much like an oral presentation. Heinz Kloss' death obviously precluded a more polished version of 'Sociolinguistic parallels between the Mennonite speakers of Pennsylvania German (or Pennsylfaanisch) and of Plautdietsch ' (117-24). Of the remaining articles, I found three particularly interesting: John Costello's 'Innovations increasing syntactic complexity in the native language of bilingual children from 5 to 10: The case for Pennsylvania German' (3-16); Marion Lois Huffines' 'The convergence of language death: The case of Pennsylvania German ' (17-28); and 'Rules of speaking and their mediation: The case of the Old Order Amish' (137-68). by Werner Enninger. John A. Hostetler, Joachim Raith, and Karl-Heinz Wandt. Costello demonstrates that, influenced by English (L2). the Pennsylvania German (Ll) of children shows an increased complexity in syntax rather than simplification. He finds that these new structures seem to become permanent in the children's Ll and explains this by the fact that linguistic variation in Pennsylvania German is considered normal by speakers, so parents don't correct any 'innovations'. Their main concern seems to be that children learn the dominant language, English, well. Huffines argues that the Pennsylvania German community has two linguistic norms for case usage, one among nonsectarians and another among the Amish and Mennonites. Among the nonsectarians the dative is being maintained, but Pennsylvania German itself is dying Among the sectarians the dative has been lost—not necessarily due to a convergence towards English, but rather from an internal development similar to the one in some Low German varieties. The article by Enninger et al. tries, from an ethnography -of-communication point of view, to shed light on the speaking rules in an Old Order Amish context, and to illustrate 'that speaking is rule-governed but subject to culture-specific constraints' (166). Apart from a few typographical errors and a line of text missing on p. 77. this is a well-edited volume which is interesting because of its varied subject matter. Judging by the rate ofpublishing on the topic and the fact that this area of investigation is far from exhausted, we can expect further collections edited by one or all of the present editors. [Wolfgang P. Ahrens, York University, Toronto.] Theorien vom Ursprung der Sprache. 2 vols. Ed. by Joachim Gessinger and Wolfert von Rahden. Berlin...
This thesis was concerned with an examination of psychological well-being, defined as consisting of negative affect, positive affect, and self-esteem. Two distinct approaches to well-being were identified (i.e. personality and social role). It was argued that well-being is likely determined by both personality and social role influences, and that these two areas might themselves be interrelated. Both cognitive and affective personality factors were included in this research (i.e. dysfunctional cognitions and affect intensity). Roles were examined at a general level (number of roles and their cognitive representation in terms of complexity) and at a specific level that included assessments of role stressfulness, importance, and satisfaction. Four studies designed to examine the independent and combined impact of these variables on well-being were conducted. Each study built on the previous both in terms of the dimension of well-being examined, and design complexity. Studies 1 and 2 were cross-sectional while Studies 3 and 4 were longitudinal.;Study 1 developed a set of social role stimuli. It was demonstrated that it is useful to consider a broad range of roles in well-being research. Furthermore, role evaluations of stressfulness predicted the negative affect dimension of well-being. Finally, dysfunctional cognitions were also related to negative affect. Study 2 extended these basic findings to the outcome variable of self-esteem. In addition, a curvilinear relationship between the number of roles and well-being was detected, but role complexity was unrelated to outcome.;Study 3 examined all three dimensions of well-being and included a second personality variable. Dysfunctional cognitions predicted negative affect and self-esteem but not positive affect. Affect intensity failed to predict well-being. Number of roles and role complexity did not predict well-being, and the role appraisals were similarly found to be poor predictors of outcome. There were few relationships between the two domains of personality and roles. Finally, Study 4 gathered daily affect ratings, and again dysfunctional cognitions predicted negative affect, while affect intensity predicted positive affect. Number of roles was related to positive affect.;Overall, personality was more strongly related to well-being than were role variables.
Scholars and educators have studied the effects of bilingualism on cognitive and linguistic abilities for almost a century. The question has generally focused on how a child with more than one language mentally organizes language, and on the repercussions of bilingualism on cognitive and linguistic development. Both these questions grew out of what might be called the monolingual-norm assumption: the belief that monolingualism is the cognitive-linguistic norm and that the child's cognitive system is fragile and designed to cope with only one language. The monolingual-norm assumption gave rise to the negative myths surrounding bilingualism: bilingualism has been blamed for cognitive, social, and emotional damage to children (see Hakuta, 1986, for review).
Gender differences in mathematics test performance that favor males are rarely found on tests of computation or other mathematical symbol manipulations. They appear primarily in tests that are labeled as tests of mathematical reasoning and consist largely of word problems. The content of word problem cover stories is a possible source of gender bias. Some have suggested that students are discouraged from solving problems for affective reasons when the content of the problem is sex-typed for the opposite sex; cognitive science research on the problem solving processes suggests that familiarity of content would be likely to affect problem solving performance. To test these hypotheses, an experiment was conducted in which underlying mathematics problems were clothed in four different cover stories: masculine, feminine, neutral familiar and neutral unfamiliar. No effect of sex-typing was found; there was an highly significant but small effect of familiarity. Ratings of problem characteristics were also collected, primarily to guide and confirm the realization of the design intentions, and a number of interesting features of the rating results are discussed.
Gender differences in mathematics test performance that favor males are rarely found on tests of computation or other mathematical symbol manipulations. These differences appear primarily in tests that are labeled as tests of “mathematical reasoning” and consist largely of word problems. The content of the word problems’ cover stories is a possible source of gender bias. Some have suggested that students are discouraged from solving problems for affective reasons when the content of the problem is sex-typed for the opposite sex; cognitive science research on problem-solving processes suggests that familiarity of content would be likely to affect problem-solving performance. To test these hypotheses, an experiment was conducted in which underlying mathematics problems were clothed in four different cover stories: masculine, feminine, neutral familiar, and neutral unfamiliar. No effect of sex-typing was found; there was a highly significant but small effect of familiarity. Ratings of problem characteristics were also collected, primarily to guide and confirm the realization of the design intentions.
This study is an investigation of the concordance among different sources of information on ratings of depression in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Informants were 75 outpatients with diagnosed AD (22 with major depressive disorder), their caregivers, and geriatric clinicians. Clinicians rated each patient on the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression on the basis of (a) the patient's report, (b) the caregiver's report, and (c) the clinician's evaluation. Overall, patients perceived themselves as less depressed than did caregivers or clinicians; for nondepressed patients, caregivers reported patients less depressed than clinicians reported; for depressed patients, no significant differences were obtained between caregiver or clinician. Certain items were more discrepant among informants and significantly differentiated depressed from nondepressed AD patients. Level of patient dementia did not affect ratings. These findings support the need for comprehensive, accurate assessment of depression in AD patients.
Abstract: The practical outcome of the project, Analysis of the Organization of Lexical Memory, is an electronic lexical database called WordNet that can be incorporated into computer systems for processing English text. WordNet includes approximately 45,000 lexicalized concepts, providing a coverage equivalent to a hand held dictionary. The database has three components, one each for nouns, verbs, and adjectives. The semantic relations that organize each component are different, but in general a lexicalized concept is represented by a set of synonyms that can be used to express the concept, the familiar semantic relations are represented by labeled pointers between synonyms sets. In order to create the database, programs were written to write and edit lexical files, to convert lexical files into database, to search the database, to strip inflections from search requests, and to display retrieved information for a user. Three user interfaces have been developed for WordNet. (1) The simplest is a command line version that does not require a windowing system and can run on standard monitors. (2) A browser written for Sun View and for X-11 windows is intended for use with an on-line dictionary; by using WordNet, the dictionary can be searched conceptually as well as alphabetically. (3) A lexical filter written for X-11 windows catches unfamiliar words in a text file and suggests alternative expressions that an author may wish to choose.
A method of sense resolution is proposed that is based on WordNet, an on-line lexical database that incorporates semantic relations (synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, causal and troponymic entailment) as labeled pointers between word senses. With WordNet, it is easy to retrieve sets of semantically related words, a facility that will be used for sense resolution during text processing, as follows. When a word with multiple senses is encountered, one of two procedures will be followed. Either, (1) words related in meaning to the alternative senses of the polysemous word will be retrieved; new strings will be derived by substituting these related words into the context of the polysemous word; a large textual corpus will then be searched for these derived strings; and that sense will be chosen that corresponds to the derived string that is found most often in the corpus. Or, (2) the context of the polysemous word will be used as a key to search a large corpus; all words found to occur in that context will be noted; WordNet will then be used to estimate the semantic distance from those words to the alternative senses of the polysemous word; and that sense will be chosen that is closest in meaning to other words occurring in the same context. If successful, this procedure could have practical applications to problems of information retrieval, mechanical translation, intelligent tutoring systems, and elsewhere.
Although the model of English pronunciation in Dutch schools is, and always has been, British English (commonly known as Received Pronunciation, RP), not only teachers, but also informed laymen notice that the pronunciation of learners seems to be more and more influenced by American English. An investigation into the nature and spread of this influence therefore seems in order. This paper discusses some of the preliminary results of a research project which aims to give an inventory and description of the influence of American English (General American, GA) on the pronunciation of 10 phonological variables, among which are /æ/ in words like classroom and wineglass, and flapped /t/ in words like pretty and meeting. A second aim of the project is to find out to which the degree the American and British varieties are attractive to our population. Therefore a number of listening tests were administered: - a preference test, in which subjects had to indicate which pronunciation of a lexical item they thought (a) best (i.e. confirm to the school norm) and (b) they would prefer to use themselves. - an identification test, in which subjects had to indicate whether an item was pronounced in RP or in GA. - a matched guise test consisting of 12 versions of the same story, read by 8 speakers, 4 of them in both varieties. A preliminary inventory shows that in roughly 25% of all the pronunciations of single lexical items (word list style) we can speak of an 'American-like' pronunciaton. The variables that are pronounced most frequently GA-like are flapped /t/ in little, /æ/ in classroom, /a/ in hockey and postvocalic /r/ in morning. It also appears that RP is still the preferred variety on both the preference tests, although this preference decreases slightly when asked which pronunciation they would prefer to use themselves. Roughly 65% of the items was correctly identified as being RP or GA. Finally, the matched guise test showed a significantly high rating of GA female voices on all factors except for the factor 'school-norm'. RP males and females scored relatively high on this factor as well as on 'social status', but dropped considerably on the 'activity' factor and remained below the GA voices on 'personal affect'.
The importance of “reasoning” in law is pointed out. Law and jurisprudence belong to the “reasoning-conscious” disciplines. Accordingly, there is a long tradition of logic in law. The specific methods of professional work in law are to be seen in close connection with legal reasoning. The advent of computers at first did not touch upon legal reasoning (or the professional work in law). At first computers could be used only for general auxiliary functions (e.g., numerical calculations in tax law). Gradually, the use of computers for auxiliary functions in law has become more specific and more sophisticated (e.g., legal information retrieval), touching more closely upon professional legal work. Moreover, renewed interest in AI has also fostered interest in AI in law, especially for legal expert systems. AI techniques can be used in support of legal reasoning. Yet until now legal expert systems have remained in the research and development stage and have hardly succeeded in becoming a profitable tool for the profession. Therefore it is hoped that the two lines of computer support, for auxiliary functions in law and for immediate support of legal reasoning, may unite in the future.
This book describes an important tool for the storage and exploration of syntactic structures that may be used under VAX/VMS, UNIX, and MS/PC-DOS in both interactive and batch modes. Linguistic DataBase, developed by the authors within the TOSCA Group at the University of Nijmegen, retrieves, displays, and counts constituent structures from syntactic trees. The book cover shows why LDB is original: magnifying glass, hovering over book opened to two pages of text, shows an inverted seven-level tree, root at the top, leaves corresponding to the words in sentence at the bottom. Hans van Halteren and Theo van den Heuvel of the TOSCA group have created primary tool for corpus linguistics: generic displayer of syntactic trees from diverse databases with different encoding schemes.LDB and its manual give students of language use --- including teachers of English as second language, computational linguists, researchers of style in literature, and language historians --- common retrieval system for syntactic phenomena. Interactive concordance programs retrieve words and their tags from sizable texts and corpora. Such tags sometimes encode morphological, part-of-speech, and even functional information. Yet these tools cannot conveniently retrieve any word or word group that satisfies pattern of syntactic tags, let alone display the results of an inquiry as tree.The authors also describe the LDB as a model of database appropriate to corpus-linguistic setting (p. 3). Their manual outlines the current range of possibilities in syntactic corpus research, and LDB exemplifies the kind of editorial capabilities, displays, and file management facilities that working database management system for syntactic trees should have. The book also tests both the function-category description model developed by F. Aarts and J. Aarts in 1982 and the contemporary English grammar published by Randolph Quirk and others ten years earlier. Both are important contributions to corpus linguistics.
Gender differences in mathematics test performance that favor males are rarely found on tests of computation or other mathematical symbol manipulations. These differences appear primarily in tests that are labeled as tests of “mathematical reasoning” and consist largely of word problems. The content of the word problems’ cover stories is a possible source of gender bias. Some have suggested that students are discouraged from solving problems for affective reasons when the content of the problem is sex-typed for the opposite sex; cognitive science research on problem-solving processes suggests that familiarity of content would be likely to affect problem-solving performance. To test these hypotheses, an experiment was conducted in which underlying mathematics problems were clothed in four different cover stories: masculine, feminine, neutral familiar, and neutral unfamiliar. No effect of sex-typing was found; there was a highly significant but small effect of familiarity. Ratings of problem characteristics were also collected, primarily to guide and confirm the realization of the design intentions.
This retrospective on statistical analysis of literature in the first twenty-four years of Computers and the Humanities divides the essays under review into four groups: the philosophical, the statistical analyses of language, the statistical analyses of literary texts, and the statistical analyses of themes. It begins with the question: must valid statistical analysis of any literary text be based on a complete linguistic description of the language of the text? It summarizes and evaluates over forty essays, giving details on works discussed, sample sizes used, statistical methods applied, and quotations from the researchers. The essay ends with a polemical summary of what has been done and what the future holds. It emphasizes the importance of extended pre-computational stages of learning about language and discourse analysis; reading previous research, building on and challenging theory; and the use of carefully crafted, small databases to test specific questions.
Abstract The roles of status and affect in the working relationships in the United States among 125 lower level managers and the 35 middle level managers to whom they reported was examined by using the Grasha-Ichiyama Psychological Size and Distance Scale (GIPSDS). The GIPSDS uses a circle-drawing task to determine perceptions of interpersonal status (psychological size) and affect (psychological distance) and a 22-item status-affect rating scale to identify the specific psychological dimensions underlying the drawings. Boss-subordinate exchanges also were measured by using Graen et al.'S (1982) Leader-Member Exchange Scale (LMX). Subordinates drew circles that estimated their psychological size or personal status, as larger than the circles their bosses drew for them; the bosses, in turn, drew circles that estimated their personal status as larger than the circles that their subordinates drew for them. Lower level managers' ratings of their personal knowledge and expertise were the best predictor of their psychological size, whereas ratings of personal dominance were the best predictor for middle level managers. Compared with their subordinates, middle level managers reported less psychological distance or more positive affect in those interactions. Rating scale items assessing emotional support in such interactions accounted for the largest share of unique variance (independent variance accounted for by a particular variable) in predicting LMX scores.
In the speech genre of beta = Io7il 'joking speech' Tojolab'al women use the ambiguity of indirect speech to negotiate their relationship to social norms and cultural values in the midst of everyday conversation. Indirection and ambiguity involve the intersection of form, function, and meaning in lexical, grammatical, and conversational structure. Ambiguity permits criticism and conflict in the context of cooperation and social solidarity.
Absorption (a trait capacity for total attentional involvement) was reported to increase during episodes of marijuana intoxication. Several subsets of the absorption scale items specifically characterized marijuana intoxication, and groups of users and nonusers showed differential affective involvement with these experiences. Additionally, within the drugusing group, a positive correlation between frequency of marijuana use and affective ratings of these experiences was found. The findings support the hypothesis that a specific type of alteration in consciousness that enhances capacity for total attentional involvement (absorption) characterizes marijuana intoxication, and that this enhancement may act as a reinforcer, possibly influencing future use.
This paper aims to analyze the efforts of the Samis to revive their language as a modern medium of communication, and, in connection with this, to throw light upon the role of language rehabilitation in the Sami ethnopolitical movement. The Sami people, numbering from 50,000 to 70,000 according to different sources, are the oldest known indigenous inhabitants in Northern Scandinavia and the Kola peninsula. But except in some northernmost administrative communes, they now constitute only a small portion of the total inhabitants, even in their own traditional territory, which is partitioned and controlled by four countries, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Soviet Union. In sections 2-4 of this paper, the unfavourable conditions of the present Sami language are outlined from various points of view: as a lower-ranked spoken language in multilingual communities, as a standard written language, and as an object and medium of education. The next section attempts to sum up the problems of the Sami language under three major factors: its socio-functional state as a minority language, the linguistic competence of the Samis in their mother tongue, and its normative crisis. By the last term I mean (1) the lack of available linguistic norms in the common written language, (2) the lack of means of protecting the language from direct exposure to foreign influence, and (3) an inability to match the language to the demands of presentday Sami society. The next two sections, 6 and 7, summarize the development of the Sami ethnopolitical movement in three phases: the period of growth from the beginning of this century, the revival of the movement after World War II, and the period of remarkable progress from the 1970s onward. Attention is paid here also to the change of conditions surrounding the Samis, i.e. the attitudes of the authorities toward them and general notions about the inherent rights of indigenous minority peoples. In this connection we discuss the present tendency of the Samis to seek a new ethnical identity by emphasizing their cultural uniqueness on the one hand, and on the other by identifying themselves with indigenous minority peoples. The latter tendency seems to be particularly significant to the movement, because an increasing number of countries and political organizations have, during the last two decades, recognized the preferential rights of indigenous minorities to territorial claims and other natural resources. In the light of Sami ethnopolitical development, sections 8 and 9 characterize various attempts to establish the Sami language as a full-fledged working language for the Samis. Following the generally accepted schema of language planning, Sami language rehabilitation activities are described along two lines: linguistic policy and extralinguistic policy. In the case of the Sami language or, more precisely, Northern Sami, the most central issues in linguistic policy were the establishment of norms for a common orthography for Northern Sami, which has had several systems, and lexical elaboration, i.e. the standardization and modernization of the lexical stock. Extralinguistic policy, the ultimate aim of which is to raise the status of the language in society, is directed to three major points. These are: (1) the acquisition of a legal guarantee to the official status of the Sami language in various situations, including education; (2) the expansion of the domain of use of the language, particularly by ensuring its position in mass media; and (3) the encouragement of the people to revaluate their own language as an irreplaceable medium of their ethnic values. It is not difficult to associate the ideology of the last point with that of the recent tendency in the ethnopolitical movement mentioned above, i.e. the emphasis of cultural uniqueness. It is to be noted, however, that their demand for the right to the mother tongue, especially in education, is not accounted for only in terms of this "uniqueness." It appears that increasing stress is being put on a kind of universal axiom concerning both the importance of the mother tongue in elementary educa tion and the injurious effects of failure in normal language acquisition. This theory, which has been repeatedly resorted to in various connections (e.g. in demands for the improvement of Sami language education and in parents' meetings) seems extremely effective, because little is left for either the political authorities or individuals to argue against when presented with these scientifically attested human rights. The achievement of these activities, at least in the normestablishment and social-legal settings of the Sami language, has been notable since the early 1970s and, in particular, from the late 1970s, when a common orthography for Northern Sami was finally created. In reality, however, concrete achievement in language rehabilitation e.g. an increase in language use or an improvement in the language competence of the speakers, has not been seen yet. The last two sections, 10 and 11, discuss the role of the Sami language rehabilitation movement in Sami ethnopolitics. The aim to revive their mother tongue has been accounted for as being similar to the recovery of their ethnic right to their native lands. It is also to be noted that the language movement itself has played an important role in the entire ethnopolitical movement as a unifying force for the national assembly of the Samis. The unique value of the language in relation to the Sami environment and traditions, coupled with their cooperation to achieve this collective common goal of revitalizing their language in present-day Sami society, has without doubt contributed to the recent ethnopolitical processes of the Sami peoples.
To construct a data base (the "Penn Treebank") of written and transcribed spoken American English annotated with detailed grammatical structure. This data base will serve as a national resource, providing training material for a wide variety of approaches to automatic language acquisition, a reference standard for the rigorous evaluation of some components of natural language understanding systems, and a research tool for the investigation of the grammar of naturally spoken English.
Reviews127 Wörterbücher. Dictionaries. Dictionnaires. [International Encyclopedia of Lexicography.] Ed. Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand, and Ladislav Zgusta. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter. Vol. 1 (1989), lii + 1056 pp.; vol. 2 (1990), xxiv + 1281 pp. $463.00 U.S. Of the impressive series of handbooks devoted to major subdisciplines of linguistics those proposed for the International Encyclopedia—on dialectology, historical linguistics, sociolinguistics, ' and computer linguistics —have appeared in the course of the past eight years; the present state of planning goes as far as no. 13 (with philosophy of language, syntax, semiotics, linguistic disorders and pathologies, writing and written language, morphology, onomastics, and languages for specific purposes still to come). It is an indication of the accepted status of lexicography as a scholarly discipline (to which status the editors of this work have contributed decisively) that the series includes Dictionaries as one of the first sets. Three volumes on dictionaries are planned; of these the first two, comprising 219 articles in 20 chapters, have been published to date (by July 1991) and will accordingly be reviewed here. A comparison of the published volumes with the undated (1985?) outline sent to contributors ("Konzeption des Handbuches," in its German version ) shows a few changes in scope: the number of articles for the three volumes was increased from 301 to 350; among them 15 numbered a, b appear to be last-minute additions, some of these written to complement chapters that proved not to be as comprehensive as the editors had envisaged. The first volume (seven chapters) starts, as it should, with more general aspects of the discipline: chapters 1-2 Lexicography and society (articles 1-25), 3 History and theory of lexicography (26-35), 4-5 Theory of monolingual lexicography (36-90a), and 6-7 pictionary types (91-100); "Dictionary types" is also the covering title ofthe first chapters in the second volume: 8-15 (101-66). A short chapter, "Procedures in Lexicographical Work" (16, 16773a ), leads on to the lexicography of individual languages: chapter 17 Classical languages (articles 174-80), 18 Romance languages (181-91), 19 Germanic languages (192-207), and 20 Slavic languages (208-19), which closes volume 2. The third volume will have 60 further articles on still other languages, more on theory and method, and a bibliography and indexes. It is obviously not possible in one review to discuss 2 19 articles, each summarizing the research in the field and each covering many dictionaries. I will therefore select what is of particular methodological interest and will be guided by personal preferences and expected interests of international users of the handbook, but will in the main restrict myself to summarizing contents. The sociological functions of dictionaries range from their standardizing impact through academies from the 17th century onwards (article 1, pages 1-19) to various responses by individual communities, situated "be- 128Reviews tween fascination and boredom" (19), but the "authority" of dictionaries in matters of correctness is now widely accepted in Western societies (2If). This impact has always been felt in Britain, but even more so in the United States (as John AJgeo aptly summarizes it in articles 3 and 4 concentrating on the mass media). Social and political aspects of lexicography have an old tradition in the Francophone world, leading up to recent legislation onfranglais, in dictionaries and elsewhere (5-6, 38-62). Whatever the views of the enlightened descriptive compilers, many users will expect guidance on what is right and wrong. A dictionary is, then, an important instrument for developing a lexical norm (Yakov Malkiel, 7, 63-70; cf. Martha RipfePs 24, 189-207) in the genesis of the standard language (Ladislav Zgusta, 8, 70-79), and as an expression of ideologies (9, 79-88). While all these surveys are intended to be universally relevant, they draw their data from the great Western European traditions. The users and uses are the focus of attention in articles 12-15: different types of people will use a dictionary for different purposes, which means that the optimum of usefulness and readability must be ensured by correlating expectations with lexicographical possibilities. Literary works or texts analyzed by the philologist present problems that are so specific that...
The following is a description of the facilities, activities and research projects of the GIRCSE at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore. The Group offers courses on computing in the humanities and assists scholars in their computer-based philological research. We discuss the problems of pre-editing of texts, lemmatization and textual analysis programs. We provide a comprehensive list of the Group's independent and collaborative research projects.
This study examines the effects of conducting class discussion on a local area network. A real time networking program (INTERCHANGE) was used for class discussion in freshman and senior literature courses and in a graduate humanities computing class. Pseudonyms, collaborative exams and essays, and computer-assisted reading were tested, along with organization of the students by sex and personality type. At the beginning and end of each semester in each class students were asked 50 to 70 multiple choice questions. Their answers revealed that the many advantages of computer assisted class discussion (CACD) clearly outweigh the disadvantages.
Strict adherence to a low-fat diet without breast milk appears to be effective in treating infants with severe lipemia retinalis associated with exceptionally high triglycerides.
This paper presents a specialized editor for a highly structured dictionary. The basic goal in building that editor was to provide an adequate tool to help lexicologists produce a valid and coherent dictionary on the basis of a linguistic theory. If we want valuable lexicons and grammars to achieve complex natural language processing, we must provide very powerful tools to help create and ensure the validity of such complex linguistic databases. Our most important task in building the editor was to define a set of coherence rules that could be computationally applied to ensure the validity of lexical entries. A customized interface for browsing and editing was also designed and implemented
Abstract Subjects estimated how many Germans drink vodka or beer, or estimated the caloric content of these drinks. The former judgment, but not the latter, produced contrast effects on subsequent ratings of how ‘typically German’ various drinks are. Thus, highly accessible extreme stimuli did only affect ratings if the first judgment pertained to the same underlying dimension.
Machine-readable texts in the humanities are in a period of rapid growth, as are programs for analyzing them, with concomitant problems of finding and choosing the most suitable of each. No one text-base, and no one search program, proves to be wholly suitable for all projects. Three of the currently available electronic editions of Shakespeare are discussed and compared, along with three commercial programs for text analysis on microcomputers.
This article describes a second aspect of the Project for Latin Lexicography (see previous article). We here concentrate on two aspects of the project. First, we describe the morphological analyzer, which comprises a base dictionary, a table of suffixes, a table of endings and a table of postfixes. Second, we describe the lemmatization module, which operates by reference to a series of grammatical codes or information given for the base, and reference codes.
The teaching of literature through CAI raises problems of both a linguistic and instructional nature; student involvement and creativity in studying literature, and especially poetry, is difficult to build into a computer-based lesson. We have confronted these difficulties in the lessonPoetry I, which introduces undergraduates to basic concepts of poetic verse in a design using screen display, speech synthesis, and verse processing to maximize interactivity and student involvement.
A program for the conversion of TIFF files of scanned images for display on IBM PCs is described. The program allows line drawings from various sources to be displayed in Turbo Pascal programs. The resultant picture files can be converted on a range of monitors, and the images displayed in different colors.
The following is a description of a computerized version of the corpus of Latin grammarians published by Heinrich Keil in Leipzig between 1855 and 1880. The intent was to prepare an instrument which would serve both as a key to Keil's corpus and as the basis for a re-edition of the work itself. We discuss the corpus itself, the ways in which it was encoded, the pre-editing work, and how the material was organized for analysis by computer.