Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
16504 papers
Acquiring non-adjacent dependencies (NADs) from continuous sequences can be challenging for adults, with prior research showing varied outcomes depending on the properties of the stimuli and methods of assessments. This study investigated whether different behavioral tasks vary in their ability to detect NAD learning. All participants (N = 322) underwent equivalent training phases involving exposure to NAD trigrams in a continuous speech stream. During the test phase, their learning of the grammatical NAD patterns was evaluated using either a two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC, N = 200) task or a familiarity rating task (N = 122). Participants in the 2AFC task performed at chance, regardless of whether the ungrammatical trigram differed minimally or maximally from the grammatical trigram. In contrast, participants in the familiarity rating task rated grammatical trigrams as more familiar than ungrammatical ones, suggesting that the familiarity rating task may be more sensitive to subtle learning effects. These findings highlight the importance of task design in the detection of NAD learning, with implications for the broader field of statistical learning research.
This article investigates the stylistic and linguistic features of Gustave Flaubert’s prose, with a particular focus on lexical contradiction and idiomatic tension. Through a close analysis of key works such as Madame Bovary, L’Éducation sentimentale, and Bouvard et Pécuchet, the study highlights how Flaubert’s writing systematically juxtaposes opposing semantic registers—romantic idealism and mundane realism, poetic elevation and trivial detail. These lexical contradictions not only enrich narrative depth but also underscore the disillusionment and irony characteristic of Flaubert’s modern vision.The article further explores how Flaubert manipulates idiomatic expressions, either by subtly distorting them or by integrating them ironically into character discourse. This tension between conventional language and authorial critique reveals Flaubert’s ambivalent relationship with linguistic norms and his pursuit of lemot juste. Drawing on French and Francophone critical literature, the study situates Flaubert’s stylistic innovation within broader debates about the literary function of cliché, the evolution of free indirect discourse, and the modern fragmentation of narrative voice.By analyzing the paradoxes at the heart of Flaubert’s style, the article demonstrates how lexical contradiction and idiomatic tension function not only as aesthetic devices but also as means of epistemological inquiry—interrogating language,meaning, and the act of writing itself.
In the digital era, machine translation tools like Google Translate and ChatGPT have become essential for cross-linguistic communication, particularly in translating formal texts such as news articles. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of these tools in translating English news articles from Borneo Bulletin into Standard Malay, focusing on lexical accuracy, syntactic structure, and contextual appropriateness. A qualitative comparative analysis was conducted by translating selected articles using both Google Translate and ChatGPT-4. The outputs were manually analyzed using a qualitative rubric guided by meaning-based translation theory, focusing on word choice, sentence structure, the original tone, and cultural nuances. The results indicate that ChatGPT-4 outperforms Google Translate in maintaining lexical precision, grammatical coherence, and contextual relevance. ChatGPT-4 demonstrated superior handling of idiomatic expressions and complex sentence constructions, producing translations that adhered closely to journalistic norms in Standard Malay. However, both tools exhibited limitations in accurately translating culturally specific references and specialized terminology. Google Translate, despite improvements through neural machine translation, tended to produce overly literal translations, leading to a loss of tone and clarity in formal contexts. These findings highlight the potential and limitations of machine translation in journalism, where accuracy and tone are crucial for public trust and information dissemination. The study emphasizes the necessity for enhanced machine translation algorithms and the integration of human feedback to elevate translation quality in low-resource languages such as Malay.
Abstract Treebanks (parsed corpora) play an important role in linguistic research, but creating high-quality parses can be very labor-intensive. This paper discusses the prospects of creating such parses in the context of New Englishes and what kinds of research insights parses can deliver. We present Singapore English as a case study. We suggest that despite the many contact-derived lexical and grammatical properties of Singapore English, it is quite feasible to apply an off-the-shelf American English parser to generate parses of Singapore English. In addition, we present an exploratory analysis of noun phrases in a Singapore English treebank, to illustrate the potential of parses and treebanks in research on World Englishes.
OBJECTIVES: Stressor appraisals are a transaction between the environment and the individual, such that individuals may appraise a situation as stressful when the problem is greater than the resources available to address it. Stressors appraised as threatening to the way one feels about themselves, their plans for the future, or their own physical health and safety are known to increase negative affect. Appraisal theory frames our predictions regarding the importance of daily contexts and aging processes to understand how stressor appraisals and feelings of aging may be associated with daily affective ratings. We investigated the potential interaction of daily stressors appraisals and daily subjective age on daily negative affect. METHODS: 101 younger adults (aged 18-36, M = 19.4, SD = 2.05) and 73 older adults (aged 60-90, M = 65.2, SD = 4.66) participated in an online 8-day daily diary study. RESULTS: Our results indicated a significant 2-way interaction between daily stressor appraisals and daily subjective age on daily negative affect, such that on days when participants reported low stress appraisals and younger subjective ages, participants also reported lower negative affect. DISCUSSION: The dynamic nature of stressor appraisals, in light of daily aging experiences and daily affective ratings, suggests potential benefits and boundaries associated with subjective aging experiences.
This article provides a comprehensive examination of the ethnolinguistic nature of dishware terminology, which constitutes an integral part of the material and domestic culture of the Kazakh people. The main objective of the research is to uncover not only the utilitarian functions of dishware in traditional Kazakh society but also its cultural-symbolic, social, and ritual significance. A set of descriptive, comparative, and analytical methods was employed in the study. Drawing on historical-cultural sources, folklore texts, and linguistic approaches, the author analyzed the formation patterns, semantic layers, and areas of use of dishware terms. The results demonstrate that traditional Kazakh dishware is not merely a tool for food consumption but a meaningful cultural element reflecting social hierarchy, norms of hospitality, and the woman's status in household life. The materials, forms, and usage of dishware vividly illustrate the peculiarities of the nomadic lifestyle and worldview. The study also confirms the close relationship between dishware names and sacred concepts, folk beliefs, and traditional rituals. The research findings may be applied in the fields of ethnolinguistics, cultural studies, historical linguistics, folklore studies, and language teaching methodologies. Moreover, the article explores the cultural content of phraseological units and fixed expressions related to dishware terminology. By analyzing lexical units deeply rooted in folk consciousness, the author reveals their cognitive and symbolic functions within the language. The collected data can serve as a foundation for enriching the national lexicon and developing teaching guidelines based on traditional cultural values.
• Questionnaires assessing visual discomfort often show low correlations with discomfort ratings to images or gratings. • This may be because people do not know how to calibrate their answers on a standard discomfort scale. • We compared standard discomfort ratings with novel functional questions which aim to aid calibration. • Correlation with questionnaire items about stripes and patterns improves using this approach. To assess visual discomfort, researchers can use questionnaires that require people to self-reflect on their real-world experiences, or researchers can present images and ask for ratings of discomfort while they are viewed. These two methods are conceptualised to measure a similar construct, but they tend to show surprisingly low correlation. A possible reason is that, when viewing the images, people do not know how to calibrate their answers on a standard discomfort scale, because it requires implicit comparison of one’s own perception with others (e.g., is my perception unusually uncomfortable?). Here we compared standard discomfort ratings with functional questions that aimed to aid calibration (e.g. I would need to immediately look away; I could tolerate it as a poster; I could live with it as wallpaper ). We found correlation with questionnaire questions about stripes and patterns improved with the functional style of question. We conclude that functional questions are helpful for assessing visual discomfort.
The evolution of natural language processing (NLP) has significantly transformed the way this study analyzes and understand language. This study presents a novel approach to generating lexical databases for English language sources using AI-powered methods, specifically leveraging BERT and reinforcement learning. Traditional methods for lexical database creation often rely on manual compilation or semi-automated techniques, which can be time-consuming and may lack comprehensive coverage of linguistic nuances. These existing approaches struggle with scalability and adaptability, particularly when addressing evolving language use and the inclusion of rare or domain-specific terms. The Open English WordNet dataset serves as a foundational resource, providing rich lexical relationships and contextual information necessary for effective database generation. Our proposed method integrates BERT for context-aware embedding generation and reinforcement learning for continuous optimization of lexical extraction and enrichment processes. This innovative combination not only enhances the accuracy of detecting synonyms, antonyms, hypernyms, and partof-speech tags but also ensures that the system learns from user feedback, leading to ongoing refinement. The advantages of this method include improved precision and recall, rapid processing times, and the ability to adapt to new linguistic data dynamically. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that AI-driven approaches can significantly enhance the quality and usability of lexical databases, paving the way for more sophisticated applications in natural language processing and linguistics.
This article analyzes the impact of information and communication technologies (ICT) on the dynamics of contemporary language, focusing on Russian and Bulgarian. In the context of globalization and digitalization, it traces the main trends in lexical, grammatical, and word-formation transformations caused by new technologies and virtual communication. The study is based on a corpus of over one thousand jargon units from the ICT field, through which the process of adaptation and assimilation of foreign borrowings, primarily from English, is examined. Special attention is given to hybridization, digraphy, and visual communication (emoticons, hashtags, memes), which form a new type of linguistic reality. The results show that ICT accelerate linguistic changes, expand the norms of the standard language, and stimulate the interaction between standard and substandard vocabulary.
This study explores how Donald Trump’s political language operated as a tool of power in shaping international relations and diplomatic discourse during his presidency. Against the backdrop of a global rise in populist discourse, Trump’s rhetoric marked by an emphasis on national sovereignty, binary oppositions, and emotionally charged slogans offers a compelling case for linguistic and ideological scrutiny. Adopting a qualitative research design, the study employs Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to conduct a nuanced examination of selected texts: key political speeches and strategic public communications (including those delivered at the United Nations General Assembly, NATO Summits, the Presidential Inaugural Address, State of the Union addresses, press conferences, and relevant tweets). These data were chosen for their explicit focus on foreign policy, diplomatic themes, and the construction of American identity in global contexts. The analysis is grounded in Fairclough’s Three-Dimensional Model, which addresses the interaction between language (textual features), discursive practices (production and reception), and social practices (ideological and institutional context). To deepen the investigative lens, the study also integrates van Dijk’s socio-cognitive framework, which illuminates underlying mental models and group cognition, particularly in relation to populist “us vs. them” narratives. Findings reveal that Trump’s rhetoric consistently employs strong evaluative adjectives (“great”, “tremendous”, “strong”), modal markers of certainty (“we will”, “we must”), and binary pronoun constructions (“we” vs. “they”) to reinforce American exceptionalism and delineate adversarial identities. His speeches frequently adopted repetitive, conversational structures and intertextual references to past rhetorical frames, aligning with his “America First” agenda. These linguistic strategies disrupted conventional diplomatic norms replacing ambiguity with assertiveness and cooperation with confrontation resulting in strained alliances, heightened global polarization, and altered perceptions of U.S. leadership on the international stage. The significance of this research lies in its interdisciplinary contribution to English linguistics, political communication, and international relations. It demonstrates how linguistic analysis can reveal the ways discourse not only reflects but actively shapes foreign policy narratives. For researchers, the study offers a methodological blueprint for integrating CDA with socio-cognitive analysis in examining political rhetoric. For teachers and students of English linguistics, it presents a robust case study in applying discourse theory to real-world political texts, highlighting the tangible impact of lexical and structural choices on global diplomacy.
The digital era has brought profound changes to language, particularly visible in the rapid emergence of new lexical units. This article explores how internet communication, social media, and technological innovations influence language change, leading to the creation and diffusion of novel words and expressions. By analyzing examples from contemporary digital discourse, the study highlights the dynamic nature of language and the impact of digital culture on vocabulary expansion. The article also discusses the implications of these changes for language norms and linguistic identity.
This article examines the cross-cultural features of lexical intensification in English and Uzbek political news discourse. The study investigates how journalists in both languages use intensifiers such as scalar adverbs, extreme adjectives, hyperbolic expressions, and culturally embedded evaluative units to shape ideological framing and influence audience perception. By comparing representative political news texts, the research identifies structural, semantic, and pragmatic similarities and differences in the use of intensified vocabulary. The findings show that English political discourse tends to employ graded lexical choices for subtle persuasion, whereas Uzbek discourse relies more heavily on emotionally charged and culturally resonant expressions. Overall, the analysis reveals how linguistic and cultural norms shape the communicative strategies of political media.
The post-independence era has marked a new phase in the linguistic relationship between Azerbaijani and Turkish, characterized by an increased lexical exchange. During this period, many loanwords from other languages have been systematically replaced by borrowings from modern Turkish. The trend toward linguistic convergence between Azerbaijani and Turkish has been particularly evident in the language of the press and mass media. Additionally, words that were historically common to both languages but had remained in limited usage within Azerbaijani have been reactivated and reintegrated into everyday discourse. A significant portion of the lexical borrowings from Turkish during this period has served as a substitute for Russian and European-origin words introduced via Russian, as well as for Arabic and Persian loanwords. The presence of Turkish-origin vocabulary in contemporary Azerbaijani continues to expand, with borrowed words exhibiting diverse morphological structures, including simple, derived, and compound forms. However, a notable concern in recent linguistic developments is the unregulated incorporation of Turkish words into Azerbaijani, sometimes without genuine necessity. This phenomenon raises questions about the potential impact on the structural integrity of the Azerbaijani language. To safeguard the purity and coherence of the language, it is imperative to adhere to established literary norms and linguistic standards
Introduction Music is an effective medium for eliciting and regulating emotions and has been increasingly applied in therapeutic contexts. Yet the absence of standardized and validated music stimulus databases limits reproducibility and application in psychological and clinical research. This study aimed to develop a culturally inclusive therapeutic music database and to examine its affective validity and reliability. Methods A total of 234 participants rated 87 instrumental excerpts from Chinese and Western traditions, spanning classical, traditional, and popular genres, along six dimensions: valence, arousal, expressiveness, familiarity, liking, and perceived tempo. Results Descriptive analyses indicated moderate to high ratings across dimensions, and reliability testing confirmed strong internal consistency across repeated evaluations (test–retest rs = 0.74–0.89, p s < 0.001). Correlation analyses demonstrated a coherent internal structure among the six dimensions. Exploratory factor analysis further supported a unidimensional affective–perceptual factor (KMO = 0.75, p < 0.001), explaining 79.2% of the variance. Cluster analysis yielded three distinct categories: Positive–Energizing ( n = 27), Neutral–Relaxing ( n = 19), and Negative–Reflective ( n = 14), which aligned significantly with expert-defined classifications [χ 2 (4) = 55.9, p < 0.001, Cramér’s V = 0.57]. Discussion Based on these results, a final set of 60 validated excerpts was retained to form a standardized therapeutic music library. This resource offers a multidimensional, cross-culturally grounded, and empirically validated tool to advance emotion research, support cross-cultural comparisons, and guide the design of evidence-based music interventions in psychological and clinical practice.
The article analyzes the key theoretical and practical aspects of developing lexical competence in the process of learning Ukrainian as a foreign language. Lexical competence is considered an essential component of foreign language communicative competence, ensuring effective communication in accordance with linguistic and cultural norms. The author explores the peculiarities of vocabulary acquisition at the initial (A1), basic (A2), and threshold (B1) levels of Ukrainian language proficiency. The study examines teaching methods that include systemic-linguistic, conditional-communicative, and communicative types of exercises, as well as interactive methods such as language games, working with texts, and visual learning aids. Through the communicative approach, which involves working with realistic texts, role-playing games, and situational dialogues, the process of immersing foreign learners in the language environment is implemented. Based on the topic “Professions,” both traditional systemic-linguistic and communicative tasks adapted to the needs of foreign learners are proposed. The presented set of exercises is aimed at the gradual development of lexical skills, ranging from familiarization with new words to their active use in speech. It facilitates the development of reading, speaking, listening, and writing skills. These tasks help foreign learners work with texts and create their own. The use of such methods contributes to increasing students’ motivation and enhancing the effectiveness of vocabulary acquisition. Reading or listening to texts about famous Ukrainians fosters linguistic and cultural competence. The described approaches can be applied both in classroom settings and for independent student work. The practical significance of this study lies in the introduction of modern approaches to teaching Ukrainian vocabulary as a foreign language. The proposed approaches and types of exercises can be adapted for studying other topics in a foreign language audience at all proficiency levels. Key words: methods of teaching Ukrainian as a foreign language, lexical competence, language proficiency levels, exercises.
This study investigates the effects of background music-specifically, tempo and modeon consumer decision-making during utilitarian online shopping, using electroencephalography (EEG). To address the limitations of traditional self-report methods, which are often affected by social desirability bias, and to fill the gap in neuromarketing research within e-commerce, we conducted a controlled experiment with twelve healthy participants. Subjects performed a series of low- and high-complexity shopping tasks while recording EEG data. Twelve classical music excerpts, categorized into four non-lyrical tempo-mode conditions, served as auditory stimuli. We extracted band-power features from EEG to differentiate cognition states, complemented by repeatedmeasures ANOVA and post-hoc analyses. Results showed a significant effect of music condition on decision <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">$(F(13,11)=1.94, p=0.039)$</tex>, with fast-tempo minor-mode conditions significantly enhancing accuracy in low-complexity tasks compared to fast-tempo major-mode conditions <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">$(F(2,22)=9.91, p<0.001)$</tex>. However, mode differences were not significant under high-complexity scenarios <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">$(t(11)=0.29, p=0.777)$</tex>. EEG-based frontal alpha asymmetry revealed positive affective states in non-music, fast-major, fast-minor, and select slow-minor conditions, contrasting negative affect in most other scenarios. Interestingly, these neural affect indicators did not correlate strongly with decision accuracy or subjective valence ratings, suggesting music may have subconscious emotional effects independent of overt self-report measures.
本研究通过实地调查，广泛收集了净月潭国家森林公园中的语言景观，采用定量分析法进行研究。通过对采集到的语料从语码种类、优势语码和语码标牌类型三个方面进行分析，研究发现，景区内语言景观具有综合性、多模态、双/多语性的主要特征；在语码种类方面，汉语占据主导地位，英语作为强势外语次之，语言模式以双语模式为主；从能见性和凸显性两个方面分析，汉语均为第一优势语码；按功能类型划分，说明介绍标识数量最多，服务设施标识次之，且每种功能类型的标牌都以双语模式为主。然而，景区中语言景观仍存在不少语言文字运用失范和语言标牌信息量不对等等问题。因此，相关部门需要加强对净月潭国家森林公园语言景观的规范建设与监督管理，必要时出台相应的法律法规，以确保语言景观的有效性和规范性。In this study, language landscapes in Jingyuetan National Forest Park are extensively collected through field surveys and studied by quantitative analysis method. It is found that, based on the analysis of the collected corpus in terms of three aspects: code type, dominant code and code sign type, the linguistic landscape in the scenic spot is featured by comprehensive, multimodal and bilingual/multilingual characteristics. In terms of code type, Chinese takes the dominant position, and English, as a powerful foreign language, ranks second. The language mode is mainly bilingual. Analyzed from the two aspects of visibility and salience, Chinese is the primary advantageous code. Divided by functional types, the number of signs for explanation and introduction is the largest, followed by those for service facilities. Moreover, signs of each functional type are mainly in the bilingual mode. However, there are still many problems in the linguistic landscape of the scenic spot, such as linguistic norm violations and informational asymmetry in code signs. Therefore, relevant departments need to strengthen the standardized construction, supervision and management of the linguistic landscapes in Jingyuetan National Forest Park and introduce relevant laws and regulations when necessary to ensure the effectiveness and standardization of the linguistic landscape.
The article examines the linguistic features of Gumar Karash, a prominent Kazakh intellectual, public figure, and writer of the early twentieth century. The study identifies lexical units characteristic of his works, including nouns, adjectives, pronouns, regional vocabulary, and borrowed lexicon, and analyzes their semantic and functional properties. These linguistic elements are examined in comparison with the norms of modern Kazakh literary language, Turkic written monuments, and the language of Karash’s contemporaries, which allows for a clarification of the author’s individual stylistic profile. The analysis highlights Karash’s use of borrowed words either in forms close to the original or adapted to Kazakh phonetic patterns, his incorporation of regional speech elements, his command of the classical written tradition, and his application of Turkic language structures. The aim of the study is to determine the semantic and functional characteristics of various lexical layers (nouns, adjectives, pronouns), regional words, and borrowed vocabulary in Karash’s writings, as well as to identify the author’s distinctive linguistic and stylistic features. The research demonstrates the preservation of archaic usages, the frequency of dialectal elements, variation in the phonetic representation of Arabic-Persian borrowings, and Karash’s productive word-formation based on the internal resources of the Kazakh language. The findings show the poet’s contribution to the development of the Kazakh literary language in the early twentieth century and justify the historical motivation of his linguistic choices.
This study aims to analyze the interference of Indonesian in Arabic translation among students of the Arabic Language Education program, focusing on morphological, syntactic, and lexical errors. The research employed quantitative, qualitative, and descriptive approaches, with data collected through a document study of students’ theses translated from Indonesian into Arabic. The analysis was conducted to identify the types of errors, their frequency, and the underlying factors affecting translation quality. The findings indicate that Indonesian interference occurs at multiple linguistic levels, affecting the coherence, cohesion, and stylistic appropriateness (Uslub) of the translated texts. Morphological errors included word-for-word translation, incorrect verb conjugation, and gender disagreement; syntactic errors involved word order, misuse of conjunctions, and improper clause combination; while lexical errors consisted of inappropriate word choice, literal translation of idiomatic expressions, and inaccurate use of technical terms. These results underscore the need for targeted training in linguistic rules, stylistic norms, and discourse practice, alongside the development of cultural and pragmatic awareness. The study concludes that Indonesian interference significantly influences Arabic translation, manifesting at morphological, syntactic, and lexical levels.
This paper presents a new version of the Spoken Slovenian Treebank (SST), a balanced and representative collection of transcribed spontaneous speech with manually annotated lemmas, part-of-speech tags, morphological features, and syntactic dependencies, recently expanded with over 3,000 newly annotated utterances. After a brief overview of the data sampling, annotation, and consolidation processes—presented in detail in previous work—we evaluate the significance of this new language resource for both linguistic research and natural language processing by first highlighting its distinctive lexical and morphosyntactic features in comparison to writing, and then assessing their impact on the performance of tools for automatic grammatical annotation. Finally, we reflect on the methodological insights gained during treebank creation, discuss the potential of SST for advancing spoken language research, and argue for the necessity of such resources in supporting linguistic diversity in language technology.
Literature has its unique features that distinguish it from other disciplines. This accounts for why literature is described as “a pleasurable use of words for knowledge, information and entertainment. It is pertinent that the choice of words in oral literature especially in the song genre is the prerogative of the artist (performer). For instance, the choice of refrain model which is dictated by the rhythm of the song in Ogba funeral song is purely the making of the lead singer. The refrain is chosen as part of the song, where there is not deviation in the song, it maintains the same refrain to the end as orchestrated by the performer – lead singer. This paper explores the oral literary and linguistic styles which the lead singer adopts in a corpus of sixteen Ogba funeral songs and how they function effectively during the rendition of the songs. It has been observed that syllables in the various lines (verse) of the various combination patterns are part of the styles of Ogba artists and are used to suit each particular song and some of them are songs without words, (mime) a mere harmony built on repeated vowel sounds. The paper concludes that the choice of words or pattern of rendition by the artist adds colour and spices up the funeral songs to a crescendo level. The refrain consists of repeated syllables for easy mastery by the audience. This paper recommends the use of this dual nature of songs because it adds aesthetics in the songs and the audience is highly enthused by the performance from the beginning to the end.
The present article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of lexical and semantic peculiarities of diplomatic lexicon of modern Persian language. Diplomatic vocabulary is considered as a special layer of socio-political language formed under the influence of historical, cultural, religious and political factors. It serves as a tool for expressing the official position of the state in international dialog, diplomatic negotiations, political statements and interstate correspondence. The author emphasizes the role of borrowed vocabulary, primarily Arabic and French, in the formation of diplomatic vocabulary. Arabic loanwords, which have penetrated the Persian language since Islamization, cover religious, political and administrative terms that have become an integral part of the official style. The author emphasizes the role of borrowed vocabulary, primarily Arabic and French, in the formation of diplomatic vocabulary. Arabic loanwords, which have penetrated the Persian language since Islamization, cover religious, political and administrative terms that have become an integral part of the official style. European borrowings, especially those of French origin, have been in active use since the 19th century. The article pays considerable attention to the stylistic characteristics of diplomatic speech. Persian diplomatic vocabulary is characterized by a high level of politeness, the use of stable expressions, complex verb constructions and traditional forms of address. Such elements of speech contribute to the observance of the norms of protocol and create an atmosphere of formality and respect. An important component is euphemization - the use of soft and veiled expressions instead of direct or potentially conflicting language. Euphemisms allow to smooth out confrontational accents and observe the norms of diplomatic etiquette. In addition, the role of Latin expressions which are used both in the original and in translation, giving the speech universality and compliance with international standards, is analyzed. Thus, the Persian diplomatic vocabulary is a multi-layered, formally organized system reflecting both national specifics and global trends in international communication.
Hoarding Disorder (HD) is defined by the inability to discard objects until clutter becomes functionally impairing. A DSM-5 specifier for HD is lack of insight. A recent study found links between insight (using an objective clutter proxy) and inhibitory/cognitive control in HD. We aimed to explore associations between insight (using the same clutter proxy) and symptom severity, functioning, and cognition in Veterans with HD. 122 Veterans seeking treatment for HD completed pre-treatment assessments, including home-based assessments of clutter volume using the Clutter Imaging Rating Scale (CIR), HD severity measures, self-reported functioning, and neuropsychological testing. Insight was defined as the difference between the assessor and self-rating of the CIR (i.e., CIR-error). T-tests and regressions were used to evaluate the relationships between measures. The majority of the Veterans were older (m = 62), male (61 %), and White (57 %), with some college education. On clinical interview, only 10 % of the sample were rated with impaired insight. The mean CIR-error score was in the impaired range, with 47 % of the Veterans underreporting clutter. Lower HD severity and higher self-reported functioning were related to lower insight. Neuropsychological test performance was related to insight, but with small effects in varying directions. Nearly half of treatment-seeking Veterans demonstrated impairment in insight into levels of clutter, similar to previous work. Objective insight ratings demonstrated better sensitivity than clinician interviews for insight impairments. Lower insight was related to lower self-reported HD severity and higher self-reported functioning, raising the question of a potential insight paradox in HD.
The literary works of Oscar Wilde are characterized by wit, aestheticism and artistic use of language. This paper examines linguistic anomalies in Wilde's plays, prose, and poetry, particularly the ways he subverts language to generate humour, irony, and social critique. Focusing on deviation at the lexical, syntactic, semantic and phonological levels, the study explores the use of style in The Importance of Being Earnest, The Picture of Dorian Gray, selecting epigrams. The results show that Wilde's studied departures from linguistic norms serve to undermine Victorian convention, provide the maximum satirical impact, and draw attention to aesthetic beauty.
The relevance of the article is due to the fact that language plays a decisive role in understanding the world around us and establishing communication between people. Language is a dynamic system, constantly developing and changing. At any given time, language contains both new and obsolete elements. The reasons, mechanisms and algorithms for the emergence of new linguistic units often lead to the variant use of these elements. Variation is thus an integral part of the synchronic and diachronic development of language. It is also a fundamental feature characterizing the functioning of all linguistic units. Therefore, the problem of variability remains relevant in linguistics and requires further study. The presence of linguistic variants can create difficulties for the speaker or writer, causing doubts about choosing one of them. Therefore, the problem of variability is closely related to the norm of the literary language. Although the norm should ensure the stability of the language, it is not static and allows for the emergence of new variants. The presence of different variants of a word or its forms leads to paradigmatic diversity in language. Accordingly, some scientists consider it necessary to eliminate the options in order to preserve the literary norm. However, as most scientists believe, paradigmatic diversity is a necessary stage in the transformation of the linguistic system elements of any literary language, since it has a positive effect on the development of literary norms. Variants are also used as a means of stylistic enrichment of speech. In our research, we attempt to find out the factors of the occurrence of spelling variants of words in the modern Tatar language in terms of the functional and structural classification of the language. The practical part analyzes the collected file (spelling variants of the same word). In the course of the study, the term “a variable nest”, based on the linguistic phenomenon “a lexical nest”, was introduced.
This article presents a contrastive analysis of lexical variation in spoken French across three major Francophone regions of Europe – France, Belgium, and Switzerland. The study focuses on identifying and interpreting lexical items used in everyday communication, with particular attention to variation shaped by regional, social, and cultural factors. The analysis centers on examples of common vocabulary, such as terms for mobile phones, money-related expressions and words reflecting elements of local material culture. These lexical units are examined in terms of their use in colloquial, often familiar or substandard registers, as well as their role in constructing speakers’ identities and sense of belonging to a particular community. The methodology is based on a comparative approach to linguistic phenomena observed in various sociocultural contexts. This enables the identification of both shared traits (such as widely circulated borrowings and cross-regional Francophone influences) and region-specific innovations (including preserved archaisms and spontaneous neologisms). In addition to the analysis of authentic linguistic data, the study draws on a secondary corpus, including research in Francophone sociolinguistics and dialectology, reports by Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), and studies on language policy in Belgium, Switzerland, and France. The findings suggest that lexical variation should not be seen as a threat to linguistic norms but rather as evidence of vitality of the French language and its adaptability to communicative needs. These differences serve not only as markers of regional identity but also as indicators of social positioning, communicative strategy, and group affiliation. Thus, the lexical diversity observed within European Francophonie highlights the functional richness of French and its capacity to maintain internal cohesion amid a plurality of speech practices.
The article answers the question whether there are two separate linguistic norms in the modern Belarusian language. On the basis of grammars, dictionaries, textbooks, educational programs and scientific articles, the author highlights the differences between the two sets of spelling rules operating in contemporary Belarusian, discusses opposing tendencies in the method of assimilation of loanwords, presents variants of grammatical endings, describes separate word-formation models and highlights the differences in lexis and syntactic structures. In this way, he proves the presence of two separate linguistic norms in the modern Belarusian language. The first: official – in accordance with the so-called narkamauka, i.e. the rules presented in current textbooks on spelling and grammar of the Belarusian language, which draws many lexical, word-formation and syntactic patterns from the Russian language, and the second norm: purist - based on the so-called tarashkievica, i.e. spelling rules introduced by Bronisław Taraszkiewicz in a textbook published in 1918 in Vilnius. At the end of the article, the author shares with the reader her own reflections on the possibility of unifying the Belarusian norms in the future.
This article explores the impact of television on children's language development and analyzes linguistic shortcomings observed in television programs. To identify the main issues, the authors conducted a large-scale survey covering all regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan and analyzed the results comprehensively. Based on the respondents' answers, the study identified the main challenges in language development and drew conclusions based on scientific approaches. The survey addressed several aspects: the influence of the language used in children's television programs on their speech development, the level of children's proficiency in the Kazakh language, the conformity of media language with linguistic norms, common language deviations in children's speech, and the amount of screen time. The findings demonstrate the need to enhance mechanisms aimed at preserving linguistic norms and fostering a generation fluent in the Kazakh language, especially in the context of growing influence from television and internet media. A total of 622 individuals participated in the survey. The sociolinguistic analysis of the collected data made it possible to track the dynamics of lexical deviations in children's language use. The study, which covered various demographic and geographical groups, revealed how social factors – particularly television dependence – affect lexical changes in children's speech. The research confirms the critical role of parents in laying the foundation of the native (Kazakh) language and highlights the significant influence of the surrounding environment, especially television, on children’s adherence to linguistic norms. The survey was conducted in Kazakh using open-ended questions, and data collection spanned three months. The article analyzes the impact of television and gadgets on children's language development and provides recommendations for implementing public initiatives in the cultural and linguistic direction.
Image aesthetics assessment (IAA) has been traditionally addressed as a supervised learning problem, where the goal is to accurately predict information related to user opinions, such as the mean opinion score, image ratings, or a binary quality label, usually crafted by using a mean score threshold to label images as highly or lowly aesthetic. Supervised approaches fail to take into account the subjectiveness of this problem, as the idea of aesthetic pleasantness varies among different people and different cultures, thus making the labels extremely noisy. However, the existence of worldwide photographic contests, exhibitions and masters implies that, to a reasonable degree, there is a broader consensus about the quality of very high-quality images and photographs. Furthermore, labelling image data for IAA is a difficult process, as a large amount of non-trivial aesthetic judgements are required for obtaining a large-scale IAA dataset. Therefore, in this work we analyse the potential of positive-unlabelled techniques for solving IAA. We propose techniques for building PU datasets from traditional IAA datasets and from available reference datasets of high-quality images, and test several well-known PU algorithms on these. Our results highlight the potential of PU approaches for IAA, as we obtain results close to the state-of-the-art with much smaller sets of labelled data: in experiments with only 5% of labelled in AVA, we reach accuracy levels only 0.03 points below NIMA, and we reach competent balanced accuracy levels in settings with a very limited amount of labelled data and with very simple models. • We study solving image aesthetic assessment as a positive unlabelled problem. • We make positive unlabelled datasets from known image aesthetic assessment datasets. • We get a balanced accuracy 0.03 points below NIMA with 5% of labelled images in AVA.
This study aimed to provide an analysis of linguistic disparities between American English and British English across three domains; namely vocabulary, pronunciation, and usage. Drawing on a combination of corpus analysis, phonetic transcription, and qualitative interpretation, the study elucidates the dynamic nature of language variation within the English-speaking world. The findings reveal numerous lexical variances between American and British dialects, ranging from everyday vocabulary to specialized terminology, reflecting historical, geographical, and sociocultural factors. Additionally, phonetic analysis uncovers variations in vowel sounds, rhoticity, and intonation patterns, while examination of linguistic usage highlights syntactic differences, idiomatic expressions, and pragmatic norms. The implications of these findings extend to language teaching, translation, and cross-cultural communication, underscoring the importance of understanding and navigating linguistic diversity in diverse sociocultural contexts. In addition, the research explores the variations between these two global English dialects as a source of linguistic richness as well as a cultural barrier. Overall, this research opens windows to our understanding of lexical, phonetic and pragmatic variation in the English language and its broader implications for communication, culture, and identity, as well as to further studies and exploration of the topic.
In China English in World Englishes: Education and Use in the Professional World, Deyuan He undertakes a timely and comprehensive examination of China English within the broader framework of World Englishes (WE). Drawing on a robust blend of empirical research, theoretical argumentation and pedagogical insight, the book makes a compelling case for rethinking the monolithic dominance of native-speaker norms in English language teaching (ELT) in China. He’s work stands at the intersection of sociolinguistics, applied linguistics and language education policy, offering a valuable contribution to ongoing discussions around language ownership, identity and post-normative models of English.The first chapters of the book effectively set the stage by mapping the intellectual terrain of WE and situating China English within it. He revisits the now canonical Kachruvian model of inner, outer and expanding circles, emphasizing the legitimacy of localized Englishes developed by non-native speakers. Importantly, He argues that the expansion of English in China is no longer just a process of linguistic borrowing but one of indigenization. He defines “China English” as a performance variety grounded in standard English but infused with Chinese phonological, lexical, syntactic and discourse-pragmatic features. While acknowledging that China English is still in a developmental phase, He insists on its sociolinguistic legitimacy and pedagogical relevance.In this framing, He takes a decisive stance against the lingering “deficit view” of non-native English varieties (Quirk, 1990), aligning instead with the more inclusive and pluricentric view advocated by Kachru (1991), Jenkins (2015) and Kirkpatrick (2007). This normative positioning is both political and pedagogical, as it reflects an effort to decolonize English teaching by affirming linguistic pluralism and fostering learners’ sense of ownership over the language.What sets this monograph apart is its rich empirical base. He employs a triangulated research design involving questionnaire surveys, in-depth interviews, and the matched-guise technique – a combination that ensures both breadth and depth of insight. Chapter 3, in particular, offers extensive data drawn from students, teachers, and professionals across China to explore perceptions of China English, preferences for pedagogical models and attitudes toward native versus local English teachers (LETs).Among the most significant findings is that standardized native varieties (British and American English) continue to dominate student and teacher preferences as the “ideal” pedagogical models. However, a notable openness toward China English and WE exists, especially when respondents are exposed to the ideological and communicative rationale behind such models. This suggests an important pedagogical opportunity: increasing awareness of linguistic diversity could shift learner attitudes and potentially improve learning outcomes.In an especially nuanced analysis, He also examines preferences for teacher identity in ELT settings. The common presumption that native-speaker teachers are inherently superior is challenged by the finding that many students – especially those in lower-tier institutions – find LETs more comprehensible and pedagogically effective than native English-speaking teachers (NETs). This insight has profound implications for language education policy, particularly in terms of hiring practices and teacher training.Moving beyond the classroom, Chapter 4 explores how English is used in the Chinese professional world, adding another empirical and theoretical layer to the discussion. Using survey data from over 2,000 professionals across various industries, He analyzes the frequency, context, and perceived importance of English in the workplace. Interestingly, the use of English is shown to be sector-specific – more prevalent in foreign-owned and joint-venture companies and in industries like finance and technology.He also finds a strong correlation between self-rated English proficiency and professional advancement, reinforcing the instrumental value of English in contemporary China. Importantly, the study reveals that while English use is increasing in frequency, it is also shifting away from native-centric standards toward more localized, intelligibility-focused forms – a phenomenon congruent with the principles of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF).These insights allow He to make a well-substantiated argument for aligning university English education more closely with the communicative demands of the professional world. English should not be taught merely as an academic subject focused on grammar and examination success, he argues, but as a functional tool of global and intercultural communication.In his concluding chapter, He outlines the theoretical and practical implications of his findings with clarity and conviction. First, he calls for a more pluralistic ELT curriculum that integrates WE and China English alongside native varieties. This includes the inclusion of explicit instruction on the sociolinguistic realities of English use, thereby raising students’ critical language awareness.Second, he advocates for the codification and promotion of China English as a legitimate pedagogical model. This, he contends, would not only enhance learners’ integrative motivation but also affirm their linguistic identity in the face of prevailing linguistic imperialism.Third, He proposes a more pragmatic and context-sensitive approach to teacher recruitment and training. Instead of privileging native speakers, the focus should be on communicative competence, pedagogical effectiveness, and intercultural awareness – qualities that LETs often possess in abundance.These suggestions are both well-argued and feasible, especially in light of current global trends toward linguistic decolonization and localized pedagogical adaptation. However, He is careful not to advocate for a wholesale rejection of native varieties. Rather, his vision is one of inclusion and hybridity – where multiple models can coexist and complement one another.Despite its many strengths, the book is not without limitations. While the triangulated methodology is commendable, the reliance on self-reported data in surveys may introduce a degree of social desirability bias. Moreover, the sample is heavily drawn from university students and professionals in urban centers, raising questions about the generalizability of the findings to rural or less privileged populations.Additionally, the notion of China English as a performance variety “in development” is both its strength and its vulnerability. The lack of a fully codified grammar or dictionary of China English might limit its immediate applicability in formal pedagogical contexts. Nevertheless, He acknowledges this challenge and treats it not as a barrier but as an invitation for further research and linguistic codification.Finally, while the book offers robust theoretical framing, it could have benefitted from deeper engagement with post-colonial theory or critical pedagogy literature (e.g., Pennycook, 1998; Canagarajah, 1999), which would have further strengthened its decolonial thrust. China English in World Englishes is a timely and rigorous work that fills a crucial gap in the study of English language education and use in China. Through a deft combination of theory, data and pedagogical reflection, Deyuan He not only challenges the monolingual bias of conventional ELT paradigms but also charts a viable path for embracing linguistic diversity in China’s classrooms and boardrooms alike.The book’s greatest contribution lies in its ability to bridge the divide between academic theorizing and practical application. It is essential reading for scholars in WE, language policy and applied linguistics, as well as for educators, curriculum designers and policymakers who are grappling with the realities of teaching English in a multilingual world.In a global linguistic order still dominated by native-speaker norms, this book is a bold call for pedagogical justice and linguistic inclusion. It reminds us that English, like any global language, is no longer owned by a select few – it is shaped, spoken and transformed by the many.
This study explores the linguistic representation of Russian national and military identity in 19th-cen- tury English-language narratives, with a focus on the Crimean War (1853-1856). Grounded in linguoimagol- ogy – an interdisciplinary approach that analyzes how national images are formed and transmitted through language – this research off ers a comparati ve literary-linguisti c perspecti ve on how English authors verbal- – this research off ers a comparati ve literary-linguisti c perspecti ve on how English authors verbal- – this research off ers a comparati ve literary-linguisti c perspecti ve on how English authors verbal- this research off ers a comparati ve literary-linguisti c perspecti ve on how English authors verbal- this research offers a comparative literary-linguistic perspective on how English authors verbal- ized their image of Russians during this pivotal historical period. The primary aim of the article is to identify and interpret the linguistic means used by English authors to construct the image of Russians during the Crimean War. This issue remains largely unexplored in both domestic and international linguistics. To achieve this aim, the following objectives were addressed: to an- alyze English-language depictions of the Russian military under Nicholas I and Alexander II; to identify pos- itive and negative evaluations of Russian identity using linguoimagologemes such as: topographic and an- thropological images of Russian proper names as seen by the British; Russians’ love of state awards as Seen by the British; piousness of Russians as Seen by the British; to determine the specific linguistic devices em- ployed by British authors to assess and portray the Russian army and national character. The study applies synchronous linguoimagological analysis using specialized terms such as macro- linguoimagotheme, linguoimagotheme, linguoimageme, and linguoimagologeme. This methodological framework enables the identification of national images through a detailed examination of textual fea- tures across historical, journalistic, and autobiographical English narratives from the mid-19th century. Key Linguistic Devices Identified: lexical tools [use of evaluative adjectives (e.g., “insignificant,” “de- cayed”) and emotionally loaded epithets (e.g., “fanaticism,” “ostentatious”); semantic fields involving mil- itary valor, religious fervor, and political symbolism; metaphorical framing to convey irony or exaggera- tion (e.g., “a wave of superstition”)]; syntactic tools (impersonal constructions and passive voice that ob- scure agency (e.g., “it was said that…”); complex sentence structures with embedded commentary (e.g., “Although the officer appeared dignified, his medals seemed exaggerated”); use of metadiscourse markers (e.g., “of course,” “as expected”) to frame reader interpretation); stylistic tools (strategic irony and juxta- position (e.g., sacred ritual vs. personal piety); tone modulation ranging from respect to sarcasm; onomas- tic transformations such as “Menchikoff” for “Menshikov” to reflect rhetorical distancing); narrative strate- gies (authorial detachment and implied superiority; cultural distancing through frequent references to Rus- sian “otherness”; construction of national identity via contrastive framing with British norms). This research demonstrates that English-language portrayals of Russians during the Crimean War were shaped by a combination of cultural bias, ideological framing, and linguistic devices. Russian prop- er names were systematically distorted, indicating both phonetic adaptation and rhetorical alienation. The visibility of medals and ceremonial symbols was exaggerated through visual hyperbole, reflecting British views on Russian state symbolism. Religious depictions fluctuated between collective fanaticism and indi- vidual sincerity, revealing a dual-layered construction of Russian piety. The study contributes a novel linguoimagological model for analyzing how nations are constructed through language. It underscores how lexical, syntactic, and stylistic mechanisms interact to reinforce na- tional stereotypes and oppositional cultural narratives. These findings are relevant to fields such as histor- ical discourse analysis, linguocultural studies, and intercultural communication and may serve as a founda- tion for further studies of national images in literary or historical contexts.
Word norming datasets have become an important resource for psycholinguistic research, and they are based on the underlying assumption that individual differences are inconsequential to the measurement of semantic dimensions. In this pre-registered study we tested this assumption by examining whether individual differences in motor imagery are related to variance in semantic ratings. We collected graspability ratings (i.e., how easily a word's referent can be grasped using one hand) for 350 words and also had each participant complete a series of motor imagery questionnaires. Using linear mixed effect models we tested whether measures of motor imagery ability (e.g., the Florida Praxis Imagery Questionnaire and the Test of Ability in Movement Imagery for Hands) and motor imagery vividness (e.g., the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire 2) could account for variance (raw and absolute difference scores) in graspability ratings. We observed a significant relationship between motor imagery vividness and absolute rating difference scores, wherein people with more vivid motor imagery provided ratings that were further from the mean word ratings. However there was no relationship between motor imagery and raw rating difference scores. The results suggest that there are measurable systematic differences in how participants make sensorimotor semantic ratings, which has implications for how sensorimotor semantic word norms are used for investigations of lexical semantic processing.
The article provides a detailed morphological analysis of pejorative vocabulary used in the novel MUR (“A Small Ukrainian Novel”) by contemporary Ukrainian writer Andriy Lyubka. Pejoratives, as emotionally charged linguistic units, play an important role in creating a sarcastic, ironic, or negatively toned text. The study examines their function in artistic discourse, which helps to underscore the specificity of the characters, their emotional states, and the sociocultural context. The analysis covers 340 lexical units, of which 303 are classified as pejoratives and 37 as invectives. Pejoratives are divided into five main morphological categories: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and participles. The largest portion consists of nouns and verbs, which are used to characterize characters and describe actions. For instance, nouns “fifa”, “hutsul”, and “khakhal” (e.g., фіфа, гуцулик, хахаль) emphasize the social or gender affiliation of the characters, while verbs like “nalysiatysia” (to get drunk), “vydudlyty” (to drink up), and “potykatysia” (to poke around) (e.g., нализатися, видудлити, потикатися) create the dynamics of comedic or ironic situations. It is also noted that the novel’s text contains a number of noun phrases that denote characters or serve to describe and characterize people, characters, and situations. The verbs and verbal phrases of the pejorative lexicon denote processes of consumption, speech, spatial movement, thought, and the emotional state of a person, as well as the negatively evaluative connotation of certain actions – particularly those of an intimate nature and related to human physiology. In terms of frequency, the most common are the verbs and verbal phrases indicating processes of consumption, speech, and spatial movement; a total of 113 such verbs and verbal phrases have been analysed. Adjectives, adverbs, and participles in the novel characterize individuals through the prism of animal traits, physical appearance, and derogatory evaluative norms of behaviour. The study emphasizes the importance of context in determining the function of pejoratives in the text. A contextual approach allows for accounting the interdependence between linguistic units and their emotional connotations. The use of pejorative and invective lexicon adds expression, realism, and a satirical nuance to the text. Special attention is paid to classification by morphological features, thereby broadening the understanding of the functionality of pejoratives in literature. The relevance of this study is underscored by the growing interest in emotionally charged lexicon and its role in literary discourse. The practical value of the work lies in the potential application of its findings in linguistic and literary research, as well as in language instruction.
This study quantifies the internal semantics of the mock-saint calendars that appeared annually in Poor Robin’s Almanack between 1664 and 1674, the most widely circulated comic almanac of Restoration London. From ten digitized issues a corrected onomastic corpus of 2728 tokens was compiled; every name is time-stamped by month and year, classified under one of eight narrative roles — Heroes & Knights, Lovers, Magic & Supernatural, Notorious Women, Outlaws & Rogues, Sages & Satirists, Tricksters & Fools, and Tyrants & Traitors — and tagged for cultural provenance (Greek myth, broadside ballad, contemporary pamphlet, etc.). Token frequency serves as an historical production norm; the category concentration and intra-class typicality translate that frequency into prototype strength. Results reveal a graded folk taxonomy. Lovers and Heroes & Knights form tight, myth-anchored nuclei dominated by a handful of classical and romance figures, whereas Tricksters & Fools and Tyrants & Traitors display deliberately flat profiles open to continual topical additions. Provenance tags show a strong correlation between lexical concentration and cultural homogeneity: categories with high concentration draw most of their tokens from a single narrative pool, while diffuse categories recruit names from five or more source domains. Diachronically, the calendar’s centre of gravity first shifts toward political invective, then toward jest-book humor, quantifying how popular print renegotiates the sacred–profane boundary in step with shifting political climates and the taste for novelty. Methodologically, the article demonstrates that fixed-format onomastic satire can be mined much like production norms: name extraction, semantic tagging, prototype metrics and diachronic slicing together provide an alternative for historical cognitive linguistics.
Touch is a nonverbal means of communication at the same time it is a basic necessity of emotional connection and therefore necessary for the wellbeing and social interaction of humans (Gallace & Spence, 2010). The sense of touch is integral to the human experience, meaning it is vital and prone to multiple interpretations (Stevens et al., 2024). It is not just a choice; rather, it is an innate human need. Touch activates a complex network of nerves that support various physiological functions, such as improved sleep, immune system stimulation, and digestion (Nuszbaum et al., 2014;Kulkarni et al., 2010). The human body is naturally made to respond to touch, largely via the activation of mechanoreceptors in the skin, which transmit the signals via afferent nerves to the central nervous system (Olausson et al., 2002;Morrison et al., 2011;McGlone et al., 2016). This feeling of touch not only engages neuronal circuits but also activates them, like the insular cortex and the somatosensory cortex. Both are essential for understanding the social brain hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, these circuits are essential to understand social interaction and affiliative behaviors, as they highlight the evolutionary importance of touch in building social relationships (Dunbar, 1998;Rolls, 2010).This study builds the foundation and explores the impact of touch on semantic processing as well as on cognitive functioning because absence of touch can lead to deprivation of touch, which affects poorly on social and emotional growth (Field, 2001;Cascio et al., 2019;Suvilehto et al., 2023). Children raised in institutions are at higher risk of developing an insecure attachment style due to the lack of contact (touch) with a primary caregiver (Davis et al., 2017). In pandemic, reduction in physical touch was associated with increased anxiety, depression, and stress, with notable declines in mood and heightened loneliness (Grandi & Bruni, 2024). So, touch is not only physiologically beneficial, psychologically it fosters a sense of safety, community engagement, and emotional support (Fields, 2011;Gallace & Spence, 2010). Moreover, understanding and use of touch among individuals are profoundly shaped by sociocultural practices, and deeply rooted religious ideologies (Khattak et al., 2024). Khattak and colleagues further explore that patriarchal society also limits the access of female adolescents to physical gatherings to fulfill their touch needs or express them openly hampering their semantic processing, which contributes to cognitive and emotional behaviors (Jablonski, 2021). Therefore, it is critical to assess how these limitations impact female adolescents' semantic processing and cognitive development in conservative societies.Semantics is an important branch of linguistics that studies how meanings are created, interpreted, and understood within language. It looks at the meanings of words, phrases, sentences, and texts (Frawley, 2013), and has historically focused more on spoken language, exploring how the context, the syntax, and the pragmatic elements impact meaning. Fields such as lexical semantics examine word relationships, while compositional semantics examines how word meanings come together to form sentences (Lyons, 1995;Saeed, 2015). Nonetheless, the notion of semantics can encompass nonverbal means of communication including touch in addition to verbal communication (Madella et al., 2023). For instance, depending on the cultural and situational context, a handshake or an embrace can convey a variety of feelings and intentions, from friendship and support to power dynamics (Hertenstein et al., 2006;Gallace & Spence, 2010). For example, the Japanese often avoid hugging as it is perceived as too intimate, whereas Latin Americans embrace warmly, and it is a common practice of greeting there. In Western culture, a handshake is a professional gesture in the workplace; yet, in India and even in the Sindh province of Pakistan, greeting with folded hands to show respect. These nonverbal forms of communication are deeply rooted in human interaction, where the meanings conveyed by touch are as context-dependent and culturally variable as those of spoken language, illustrating that touch, much like language, plays a crucial role in conveying meaning and fostering understanding in social interactions (Burgoon et al., 2021). Conversely, cultures with frequent touch may have a more literal touch-related vocabulary, reflecting the direct and frequent nature of physical contact in daily life (Guest et al., 2011).Moreover, theories of embodied cognition have gained significant influence, with research highlighting the centrality of sensorimotor experiences in cognitive and language processing (Wellsby & Pexman, 2014). In language processing, specifically semantics processing, the meanings of words are deeply rooted in context referencing and cultural sensory-motor practices. For instance, initial referencing of the words soft and rough is tangible and gives physical sensations but their meanings are conveyed metaphorically, as a soft voice or a rough day. This progression in language illustrates how embodied experiences (including touch) influence both abstract thinking and semantic processing (Williams & Bargh, 2008). It enables every individual to interpret the language and use it in complex ways. This process of semanticizing language plays an important and expressive role between sensory experiences and higher-order cognitive functions. In the process of thinking, abstract concepts connect with physical experiences. This connection highlights the embodied cognition. Consequently, embodied cognition facilitates the integration of language, thought, and social interactions. Given its important role, there is a dire need for empirical investigations to explore the mechanisms and implications of this in lab settings.In orphanages, specifically newborn babies consistently lack physical touch from caregivers (Spitz, 1945;Ainsworth, 1979;Harlow & Zimmermann, 1958). Such newborn babies experience delayed physical growth and cognitive impairments, weaker immunity, and emotional dysregulation (Fields, 2011). In the 1980s, a study was conducted in Romanian orphanages, where attachment disorders and delayed growth were observed in the children who received no or little touch and were also socially isolated (Nelson et al., 2007). This phenomenon, which is later known as failure to thrive, warns, that lack or no touch is a critical issue that reinforces various psychological and cognitive dysfunctions (Oster, 1978;Valentijn et al., 2005).The experience of limited or no touch affects mental health, which further leads to depression and anxiety (Croy et al., 2016). Its effects show poor academic performance and social engagement specifically in young individuals. The development of cognitive deficiencies has far-reaching societal implications, and potentially impacts the human life cycle, i.e., from infancy to old age. A disrupted social life, linked to loneliness, can lead to negative health issues such as heart disease, strokes, anxiety, depression, and cognitive conditions like dementia. Touch helps reduce such health issues. When a body is touched, deep inside the brain, the hypothalamus produces oxytocin, a hormone related to bonding and relaxation (Cascio et al., 2019). Oxytocin plays an important role in the childbirth process. Gaining a deeper understanding of oxytocin helps individuals take better care of their health and better insights into body functions (Uvnas-Moberg, 1998).Cognitive functions, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving are interconnected with sensory inputs (Nadeau, 2020;Pulvermüller, 2005;Diamond, 2013). Research shows that touch experience strengthens the memory retrieval and formation processes by establishing connections between physical sensations and abstract concepts (Hargreaves et al., 2015). Touch experience illustrates touch semantics that shape our language comprehension and maintain cognitive performance, specifically, in decision-making (Engelen et al., 2011).In the Pakistani patriarchal society, females are restricted from participating in social activities, including healthy physical activities in institutional settings (Laar et al., 2019;Ali et al., 2011). These restrictions impact the female adolescents' perceptions and experiences of their daily life opinions to express them. Even they have no autonomy to express their physical and sexual needs with their life partners, forced by religio-cultural narratives. Moreover, there is a lack of institutional support for females. Their voices for their rights are silenced and systematically ignored under the exalted ideal of social or cultural modesty (Khattak et al., 2024). These social, cultural, or religious limitations (Montagu, 1971; Gallace & Spence, 2010), aggravate mental and physical health issues, specifically, touch semantics disruptions to understand and interpret their touch experiences. This complicates social communication and relationship dynamics, not understanding the issues or misinterpreting them damages social cognition (Henley & Patrick, 1977;Field, 2001). Resultantly, these issues hamper professional effectiveness and social integration, ultimately impacting social cohesion as well as economic productivity (Bloom et al., 2005).A society that limits touch for its female population may experience cognitive dysfunction, evidenced by significant social issues such as domestic violence, child abuse, and honor killings. The most severe consequences of these limitations manifest in intellectual deficiencies, slow learning, and an unskilled workforce (Field, 2001). Additionally, cultural norms often serve as a barrier to touch experience, with Pakistani society being an example where strict norms governing physical contact are often shaped by religious narratives (Ali et al., 2011). As a result, the language developed for touch semantics in such societies differs from that of Western cultures, with a more limited vocabulary related to touch, further hindering the full recognition and expression of this fundamental human need. Such an example is also seen in other conservative Asian cultures too, where hugging is not common. Specifically, in South Asia at the workplace, people avoid patting on the back as a supportive gesture, though it boosts morale in Western workplace culture. In the Middle East, due to gender norms, healthcare interaction limits therapeutic touch impacting less emotional care. The culture of United Arab Emirates discourages public display of affection, having minimal linguistic expressive frameworks to discuss their emotions. Similar discouraging emotional values are seen in Japanese culture, where suicide is prevalent (Davies & Ikeno, 2011). So, this shortage of touch vocabulary hinders well-being's emotional value.Hence, the absence of physical contact interferes with the semantics of touch, impairing the ability to interpret and respond to tactile stimuli, which in turn hinders both social communication and cognitive development (van Stralen et al., 2021). If these issues are not addressed in conservative societies, the aspiration to build a society grounded in critical thinking and social awareness will remain out of reach, exacerbating social inequalities and potentially contributing to an increase in incidents of harassment (Khattak et al., 2024). The need to confront this matter is important. Therefore, government entities, policymakers, academic institutions, and health organizations must pay attention to this concern. It is crucial to address the need for touch and emotional connectivity to cultivate a more unified and supportive society. Neglecting these essential needs could perpetuate cycles of disadvantage and imbalance, undermining societal welfare and stability (Maslow, 1958).Educational institutions may address touch deprivation through a range of interventions. Incorporating structured physical activities such as sports, dance, and theater into the curriculum will provide students with essential tactile experiences, which are crucial for mitigating the adverse effects of touch deprivation (Palacios, 2024). Sports like soccer, basketball, or cricket and group dances (swing, ballet, cha-cha-cha, rumba, salsa, etc.), specifically folk dances encourage teamwork and physical interaction. Community schools in Brazil introduced samba into its curriculum (Raphael, 1990), and in the UK theater-based intervention helped children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Beadle-Brown et al., 2018), improve their cognitive communication skills. Yoga is introduced in Indian schools, resulting in enhanced focus among students, and also decreased anxiety (Verma et al., 2014). By embedding these activities into the school environment, educational institutions can counteract touch deprivation, promote healthy development, and create a supportive, interactive learning atmosphere. The sensory stimulation derived from these activities can enhance touch semantics, enriching students' understanding and use of tactile language in everyday interactions. In this regard, educators and trainers need to be culturally aware when addressing touch deprivation. In multicultural settings, educational programs should include training on the diverse cultural norms related to touch and develop strategies that are inclusive of various cultural practices. This helps ensure that Finally, involving parents and the broader community in supporting tactile experiences can enhance the effectiveness of these interventions beyond the school setting. Offering workshops and informational sessions for parents on how to create sensory experiences at home not only with their female adolescents but in general with their children can help address touch deprivations, especially in patriarchal societies. Additionally, establishing community partnerships to provide supplementary resources can further support these efforts. Such initiatives are essential for improving adolescents' cognitive and emotional well-being and ensuring that the benefits of tactile experiences are extended into their daily lives (Salthouse, 2019).Deprivation of touch is not merely a minor disturbance or distraction of an individual's routine life; rather it can create a ripple of consequences that can impact individual's future goals, relationships, and overall life trajectory. In eastern society, it is significantly impacting female adolescents by limiting their ability of free decision-making of their life matters. This deprivation leaves them cognitively and emotionally vulnerable resulting in low self-esteem, which in turn hinders them from asserting their boundaries and life choices. Insufficient touch experiences reduce their confidence to express intimate needs and weakens their resilience towards societal pressures like forced marriages, domestic violence, or denial of educational rights. To break the cycle of touch deprivation, now it is essential to empower young females through culturally appropriate interventions, thereby unleashing their full potential and fostering a bright future.
Most words in a language are lexically ambiguous and are associated with multiple meanings that vary in their frequency and relatedness. Although ambiguity is a fundamental property of language, there are extensive issues with existing measures of this construct. For instance, dictionary-based classifications and subjective ratings of meaning number and frequency struggle to capture the graded nature of ambiguity and, by proxy, its impact on cognition and performance in experimental tasks. It is also difficult to scale subjective measures to the full lexicon. We introduce a novel, automated framework to measure lexical ambiguity based on word association data from the Small World of Words (SWOW) project. We apply community detection algorithms to association graphs to quantify both the number and distribution of semantic communities for each word. This in turn allows us to derive graded representations of meaning frequency and relatedness. To better understand our new metrics, we compare them to previously published subjective norms, and establish their validity by showing that they predict lexical decision performance in English and Rioplatense Spanish. Furthermore, our results reveal cross-linguistic differences in lexical ambiguity—Spanish is less ambiguous than English overall—which we hypothesize is due to typological differences between the languages. Our validated framework contributes novel insights for computational and psycholinguistic models of semantic processing, and offers a scalable, automated, and language-independent framework for quantifying different facets of lexical ambiguity. We provide all of our code and ambiguity measures for approximately 7000 words in both languages to facilitate their use by other researchers.
This article presents a comprehensive linguistic analysis of Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytskyi’s epistle «To my beloved Hutsuls!» (1900), which is written in the Hutsul dialect. The introduction outlines the study’s purpose: to determine the extent to which dialectal norms are integrated into this confessional text. The research objectives include identifying the phonetic features of the Hutsul dialect within the epistle, analyzing its grammatical characteristics, and characterizing its lexical corpus. The primary source for this study is the text of the pastoral letter, published in the 1935 edition of Metropolitan A. Sheptytskyi’s works. The article examines the historical context surrounding the creation of «To my beloved Hutsuls!», which influenced the author's linguistic choices. Sheptytsky wrote this message in 1900 following his visit to the faithful of the Kosiv Deanery. A review of relevant literature is provided, including lexicographic sources that describe the norms of the Hutsul dialect. During this period, there was a cultural opposition between «yazychiie» (a Church Slavonic-based literary language) and the vernacular, with Sheptytskyi opting for the latter. His innovative approach as the head of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC) received high praise from Ivan Franko. In the section titled «Phonetic features of the hutsul dialect in the epistle», the characteristic manifestations of the Hutsul vocalic and consonantal systems in the text are examined. It is established that the author accurately conveys the sound profile of the Hutsul dialect, with only a few minor exceptions. The section «Morphological features of the epistle» identifies noun, adjective, verb, pronoun, and numeral inflectional forms typical of the Hutsul dialect. Additionally, several common word-formation patterns are outlined. The author generally adheres to the key grammatical norms of the dialect, although some deviations in inflection compared to documented forms in lexicographic sources are noted. In the section «Lexical corpus of the epistle», typical lexical dialectisms are described, along with the presence of theological terminology and internationalisms. It is argued that the author skillfully combined diverse layers of vocabulary, ensuring comprehensibility for the Hutsul community. A. Sheptytskyi did not write the pastoral letter in the Hutsul dialect as a philological experiment; instead, he intended for it to have a significant educational and pastoral impact. Today, with Standard Ukrainian serving as a common means of communication known to nearly all speakers through the education system, there is little need to develop a confessional style based on individual dialects. While the potential of dialects is broad, as demonstrated by A. Sheptytskyi’s epistle, their societal relevance is currently low or largely absent. In the conclusions, it is noted that A. Sheptytskyi’s epistle «To my beloved Hutsuls!» captures the essential features of the Hutsul dialect and stands as an important linguistic document of the early 20th c. The epistle demonstrates an expansion of the dialect’s functional possibilities beyond its usual sphere.
The article presents a comprehensive pragmalinguistic analysis of the functioning of the dialectal lexical family with the root -khos(e)n- (khosen, khisna, khosnuvaty, khosennyi) in the discourse of the modern Zakarpattia press. The relevance of the study is driven by the general trend towards the democratization of the national media discourse and the rethinking of the role of regional dialects, which are transforming from markers of low style into effective means of communicative influence. Based on material from the newspapers Novyny Zakarpattia and Staryi Zamok “Palanok” (2010–2024), the dynamics of semantic and stylistic transformations of this vocabulary, borrowed from the Hungarian language but deeply adapted, have been investigated.It has been found that within the studied corpus, dialectisms of this group function predominantly without graphic highlighting (quotation marks, italics), indicating their organic integration into the region’s linguistic consciousness and their status as a norm of usage. It has been determined that the pragmatic potential of the lexeme khosen extends far beyond the nomination of utilitarian concepts (“benefit,” “profit”). In journalistic texts, it also acts as an instrument of social criticism and evaluation, marking the position of “community common sense” in opposition to officialdom or the declarativeness of the authorities.The role of the studied units in strategies of language play (creating a comic effect through the contrast of “economic” semantics and intimate context) and euphemization is analyzed. Particular attention is paid to the gnomic function of the dialectism: it is revealed that in opinion columns and interviews, the word khosen is often used to formulate life credos, advice, and moral guidelines. The use of this vocabulary in the discourse of identity, where it serves as a means of legitimizing the regional linguistic code, is also traced. It is proven that in modern media text, the dialectism evolves from a means of creating local color to a polyfunctional instrument for realizing authorial modality and building trust with the readership.
Gillian Russell’s new book Barriers to Entailment (hereafter BE) takes on the ambitious project of formulating and proving five barriers of entailment in a unified framework. Each barrier states that a certain class of sentences does not follow from another class of sentences:The particular/universal barrier: no universal claims from particular ones.The past/future barrier: no claims about the future from those about the past.The is/must barrier: no claims about how things must be from those about how things are.The indexical barrier: no indexical claims from nonindexical ones.The is/ought barrier: no normative claims from descriptive ones. The last barrier is known as Hume’s law, a controversial thesis in logic and metaethics. BE makes a compelling case for studying these barriers together and developing a general account of them. It begins with an extensive survey of formal and informal counterexamples to Hume’s law found in the literature and convincingly demonstrates that they can be reconstructed to challenge the other barriers (chap. 1).The primary technical feature of this book is Russell’s model-theoretic approach to sentence classification for each barrier, developed and expanded from her previous work (Restall and Russell 2010). This original approach allows a systematic and generalizable sentence classification method, which is an important novel alternative to syntactic or lexical methods that classify sentences based on the mere presence or absence of particular logical operators or linguistic items. To illustrate the central idea of the model-theoretic approach, consider a pair of particular and universal sentences, Fa and ∀xFx, in first-order logic (FOL). Suppose that both Fa and ∀xFx are true in a certain model. When adding a new object, such as b where ¬Fb, in the domain of the model, the truth value of Fa does not change, while that of ∀xFx does. Thus, the truth value of a particular sentence is not sensitive to model-extension, whereas that of a universal sentence is. This method is easily applicable to other classes of sentences with respect to different types of changes in models. Roughly, the truth value of a future sentence is sensitive to changing what will hold in the future in a model of tense logic, but that of a past sentence is not. Unlike contingent sentences, the truth value of □P would change when adding a ¬P-world to a model. Indexical sentences are sensitive to context-change. Unlike descriptive sentences, normative sentences are sensitive to norm-shifting. Each kind of change in models is represented as a binary relation R over the set of admissible models.Russell introduces two model-theoretic concepts, fragility and breakability, that capture a sentence’s sensitivity with respect to R in two different ways (chap. 2). So there are two ways of classifying sentences. Using fragility, for example, FOL-sentences are classified as universal if they are fragile with respect to model-extension and as particular if they are antifragile with respect to model-extension. We get a breakability-based taxonomy for particular/universal sentences using breakability in the place of fragility. One important difference between the two is that a breakability-based taxonomy classifies sentences in two kinds, R-breakable and R-unbreakable sentences, while a fragility-based taxonomy is not dichotomous. For example, a mixed sentence like ∀xGx∨Fa is neither particular nor universal (neither model-extension fragile nor model-extension antifragile) in the fragility-based taxonomy for particular/universal sentences.Russell formulates and proves the first three barriers using respective fragility-based taxonomies and then generalizes them to the following theorem.The GBT states that an argument is invalid when the set of its premises (premise set) is of one class and the set of its premises and the conclusion (argument set) is of another class. Note that the class of the conclusion itself is not at issue here. As Russell herself admits, this is not a naturally expected form of a barrier (78), but this particular formulation is adopted to deal with some of the prominent counterexamples in the literature. Take the particular/universal version of Prior’s dilemma (1960) as an example:(1) Fa⊧Fa∨∀xGx(2) Fa∨∀xGx, ¬Fa⊧∀xGxIf the particular/universal barrier is formulated as the thesis that an argument from particular premises to a universal conclusion is invalid, then one of the above arguments is a counterexample to the barrier regardless of how we classify Fa∨∀xGx. If Fa∨∀xGx is universal, then (1) is a counterexample. If it is particular, then (2) is a counterexample. So either classification would result in disproving the particular/universal barrier. However, Prior’s dilemma does not pose a threat to the particular/universal barrier when it is formulated in terms of a particular premise set and a universal argument set as in the GBT. The argument set {Fa,Fa∨∀xGx} in (1) is particular. The premise set {Fa∨∀xGx,¬Fa} in (2) is not particular. Therefore, neither argument is a counterexample to the particular/universal barrier according to the GBT.However, Russell rejects the GBT as her defense of all five barriers because of its limitations in handling arguments involving modal necessity claims:(3) □P⊧OP(It is necessarily that φ. Therefore, it is obligatory that P.)(4) □P⊧FP(It is necessarily that φ. Therefore, it will be the case that P.)These arguments threaten to be counterexamples to the is/ought and the past/future barriers respectively because intuitively □P is neither an ought-sentence nor a future sentence. Russell puts forward the following tetralemma for the defenders of the past/future barrier (chap. 6.5):1. Accept that □P is a future sentence.2. Accept that FP isn’t a future sentence.3. Accept that □P⊧FP isn’t valid.4. Rework the theorem to allow a limited class of exceptions.Russell argues for option 4 through a process of elimination (chap. 6.5): clearly, option 3 is not desirable, and options 1 and 2 would result in unsatisfactory sentence classifications. Avoiding options 1 and 2 turns out to be somewhat challenging because the fragility-based taxonomy does not allow us to classify □P and FP into different sentence classes (chap. 6.4). Analogous tetralemmas hold for the indexical and is/ought barriers (chaps. 7 and 8). So Russell concludes that the barriers must not only allow exceptions but also be formulated using breakability.Here is Russell’s final general formulation of the barriers:Russell shows that all five barriers are instances of the LBT proved in one big quantified-deontic-modal-temporal-indexical logic (chap. 9).I believe it would have been worth discussing further whether the LBT is a better defense of the five barriers than the GBT. The major issue Russell takes with the GBT is its unsatisfactory taxonomical consequences. On the other hand, the LBT, formulated using breakability, intuitively classifies sentences but allows exceptions. I think proponents of the barriers, particularly those of Hume’s law, have good reason to want both: getting the taxonomy right and formulating a barrier without exceptions. Unfortunately, they cannot have both in Russell’s model-theoretic framework. So there is a dilemma between two options: (1) a barrier theorem without exception using a fragility-based taxonomy which has some unintuitive results in sentence classification and (2) a limited barrier theorem with exceptions using a breakability-based taxonomy which results in more intuitive sentence classification. Russell advocates (2) using the tetralemmas, but it’s not obvious to me that the taxonomical cost is greater than allowing exceptions as Russell assumes. Is it really implausible to classify □φ as a future sentence? And normativism about □φ is not an undefendable position. For example, Amie Thomasson (2020) argues that □φ is normative in that it instructs us what to infer from what. The indexical tetralemma discussed in chapter 7.5 sounds more compelling than others because it seems harder to defend classifying ∀xFx as indexical. Consequently, some might wonder if formulating and proving the barriers in a limited form is the best defense of all five barriers. At least, two horns of the dilemma may have to be weighed more carefully.In the last two chapters, Russell proves informal versions of the barriers by defending them against informal counterexamples, such as arguments involving speech acts, propositional attitude verbs, truth predicates, or thick normative expressions. The key idea of Russell’s informal approach is combinations. Combinations are the different ways the world could have been (different possible worlds) and the different ways our language could have been (different interpretations). This ingenious informal counterpart of a model in a formal system allows Russell to apply her model-theoretic approach to informal counterexamples without formally representing them and to sidestep controversial formal or theoretical issues. For example, regardless of which theory about thick normative terms is accepted, the limited informal is/ought barrier holds because any natural language argument from descriptive premises to a normative conclusion is either invalid or satisfies the unless-clause of the barrier (chap. 11.4).Despite BE’s formal and informal defense of the five barriers in a unified framework, readers might find it unsatisfactory regarding Hume’s law. Consider the following arguments:(3) □P⊧OP(5) P⊧P∨OP1(6) ∀x(Ax→Bx)⊧∀x(Bx→OCx)→∀x(Ax→OCx)2These are just a few examples of valid arguments from descriptive premises to a normative conclusion in quantified deontic modal logic but satisfy the unless-clause of the limited is/ought barrier, Russell’s final formulation of Hume’s law (chap. 8). Therefore, they are exceptions. I think it is natural to wonder why they are exceptions, not counterexamples, to Hume’s law. One person’s modus ponens is another person’s modus tollens. The contraposition of the limited is/ought barrier says: if an argument from descriptive premises to a normative conclusion is valid, then it satisfies the unless-clause. For skeptics, thus, proving the limited is/ought barrier is nothing but identifying a specific model-theoretic property of working counterexamples to Hume’s law. And, in fact, many proposed counterexamples much discussed in the literature share this property. However, I believe it is meaningful progress to shift the focus of the debates on Hume’s law to a critical examination of the model-theoretic aspects of the exception class of the barrier.Overall, BE is an excellent showcase of how careful formal work can shed new light on classic problems and how philosophical questions can be sharpened through formalism. BE also carefully explores classification issues in tense logic (chap. 3), clarifies different versions of the modal barriers (chap. 4) and the is/ought barriers (chaps. 8.1 and 9.7), and develops indexical logic through synthesizing important insights on indexicals in the literature (chap. 7). Despite its innovative formal approach and broad coverage of various logics, anyone familiar with elementary FOL and some modal logic should be able to follow and appreciate Russell’s thorough and rigorous work in BE. BE might leave us wondering how effective it is to prove the limited version of the barriers to defend them since they are free of counterexamples at the cost of allowing exceptions. But because it provides a rigorous recasting of some issues surrounding proposed barriers, including Hume’s law, and promotes the study of barriers to entailment in general, BE is an important contribution.
Tongue twisters represent a distinctive genre of folklore that simultaneously serve as a means of testing phonetic complexity and as an expressive form enriched with cultural and spiritual content. From a phonetic perspective, tongue twisters contribute to the mastery of the sound system and pronunciation norms, while from a lexical-semantic perspective, they reflect the worldview, cultural stereotypes and spiritual values of the people who created them through the use of vivid imagery.
This thesis examines the system of linguistic taboos and euphemisms in the Karakalpak language as an integrated cultural, communicative, and ethnolinguistic phenomenon. It contextualizes the emergence of tabooed and euphemistic lexical units within traditional Karakalpak society, exploring their historical origins, mythological underpinnings, religious influences, and sociocultural functions. The study highlights how these linguistic strategies regulate social behavior, maintain interpersonal harmony, and reflect culturally embedded norms of respect, modesty, and sacredness
Abstract: The Hebrew language and its rapid development played a crucial role in modern Jewish history. However, scholarship on Modern Hebrew has not sufficiently explained how its abstract status as a national language was translated into the practical promotion of a Modern Hebrew–speaking community. The path of Hebrew and its advocates was neither simple nor serene and was accompanied by a lively public discussion across the multilingual Jewish press. By examining key press debates that occurred between 1875 and the outbreak of World War I, this article traces the formation of new linguistic norms. It shows how conventions concerning the national status of Hebrew, its prospect as a modern language, and its potential to serve as the basis of a new Jewish society were crystallized and laid the foundations that enabled it to become, eventually, a modern national language.
This research explores the practices of Pakistani teachers in the use of internal and external modification strategies in the applications for casual leave addressed to the principals. The study is qualitative in nature and is based on a collection of authentic leave applications from two government colleges, selected through purposive sampling. The analysis is based on Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) framework, which has been modified by Economidou-Kogetsidis (2011) for written requests so that internal and external modification strategies are systematically identified. The results indicate that the internal modification of requests was more common, particularly the use of lexical and phrasal downgrader “humbly,” “kindly,” “with due respect” along with external modifiers like grounders and expressions of gratitude. The requests that teachers made showed differing degrees of mitigation which revealed varying levels of formality, deference, and in some cases, institutional hierarchy awareness. The implication of the study is that Pakistani teachers use a mix of internal and external modifications in leave applications to show politeness, respect, and pragmatic awareness of institutional norms; the study recommends focusing on pragmatic competence in teacher training programs to ensure smooth and effective communication in academic settings.
Background: Many previous studies highlighting a relationship between depression and emotional face recognition have relied on measures of classification accuracy to determine recognition deficits. However, the perception of emotions is also related arousal levels and valence, and more research is needed to determine how depression impacts these dimensions.Aims: To compare performance on both an objective forced choice emotional recognition task and subjective emotional face valence rating task in participants with self-reported high depression.Methods: Based on screening using the depression sub-scale of the DASS-42, 46 participants (23 males, 23 female) were in the high depression group (mean DASS-42 34±5) and 50 participants in the control groups (25 males, 25 females) with DASS-42 scores of either 0 or 1. All participants completed both a performance-based task (objective) as well as a rating task (subjective) of emotional facial expressions. Results: The data indicate that difference in performance exist in classification accuracy between the groups, with depressed participants demonstrating reduced accuracy for anger, sadness and neutral facial expressions. Additionally differences in subjective ratings exist in the depressed group, but with the important caveat that these only relate to faces display positive emotional expressions.Discussion: The limitations of relying solely on objective tasks where recognition accuracy is the main outcome measure are discussed as well as the data quantitatively demonstrating a reduced response in the depression group to positive stimuli. This study justifies the need for future studies using both objective and subjective measures to assess emotion classification deficits in depression.