Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
16504 papers
This paper proposes the syntactic category prediction for improving translation quality. In parsing using sentence segmentation, the segments are separately parsed and then the parsing results of each segment are combined to generate a global sentence structure. The syntactic category prediction guides the parser to identify relationships among segments and to select the correct parsing results for each segment. We design features for predicting syntactic categories and generate decision trees for the prediction using training data from the Penn Treebank. In experiment, we show the prediction accuracy and comparison results with the prediction by human-built rules, heuristic probability function, and neural networks. Also, we present how much the category prediction contributes to improving translation quality.
This paper proposes a novel query expansion method using Local Context Analysis(LCA) based concept tree pruning.It extracts the suggested terms from initial documents which are retrieved for the original query by LCA method,and uses these terms to prune the concept tree built by lexical database,to add new terms,and to recalculate the weight of expanding terms.Experiments show that the combined expansion yields significant improvements over existing algorithms under the same experimental condition.
Annotated data have recently become more important, and thus more abundant, in computational linguistics. They are used as training material for machine learning systems for a wide variety of applications from Parsing to Machine Translation (Quirk et al., 2005). Dependency representation is preferred for many languages because linguistic and semantic information is easier to retrieve from the more direct dependency representation. Dependencies are relations that are defined on words or smaller units where the sentences are divided into its elements called heads and their arguments, e.g. verbs and objects. Dependency parsing aims to predict these dependency relations between lexical units to retrieve information, mostly in the form of semantic interpretation or syntactic structure. Parsing is usually considered as the first step of Natural Language Processing (NLP). To train statistical parsers, a sample of data annotated with necessary information is required. There are different views on how informative or functional representation of natural language sentences should be. There are different constraints on the design process such as: 1) how intuitive (natural) it is, 2) how easy to extract information from it is, and 3) how appropriately and unambiguously it represents the phenomena that occur in natural languages. In this article, a review of statistical dependency parsing for different languages will be made and current challenges of designing dependency treebanks and dependency parsing will be discussed.
A study of Guilln's critical work through a comparative analysis of Lenguaje y poesa essays concerning the mystic poetry of saint John of the Cross and the visionary lyrics of G.A. Bcquer.The obscure difficulties of these poets challenge Guilln's vision of literature as a conscious art of language.Symbolic interpretation requires the use of different strategies, basically a philological approach and the methods of several new criticisms stemming from the Romantic hermeneutics, concerning problems such as the alternance of litteral and spiritual senses, the poem as an imaginative transgression of linguistic norm, or the shifts between textual and intentional messages.Guilln's answer to the question of unintelligibility leads to a consideration of the way in which texts are determined and the borders between poetry and literary criticism.
This research concerns linguistic variation and Portuguese teaching at school. It is assumed that linguistic pattern is conceived by teachers as an homogeneous norm, so that it is incompatible with linguistic norms students face with in usual text reading and writing activities. Taking into consideration official evaluation of didactic books, scholar reading activities, and sociolinguistic results that prove school interference at students writing performance, this article proposes that Portuguese classes should present variation as complex continua in which is displayed a plurality of norms.
The referential expressions of online sales clothing generally consist of the central word and multiple attributives.Central words are always created in recent years.Multiple attributives are rich in content and varied in word order.Referential expressions of online sales clothing reflect some cultural trends in our society.However,some of the expressions deviate from linguistic norms and call for standardization.
Chemical sensitivity (CS) is common in the adult population and implies negative effects (e.g. physical symptoms, negative affects and behavioral disruptions) of odorous chemical substances. In Study 1, relations between self-reported CS, negative affect and neuroticism were investigated among Swedish university students (n = 103). CS and neuroticism were positively correlated, suggesting that highly neurotic persons, compared to low- neurotic persons, more easily respond negatively to environmental odors. In Study 2 (n = 40), relations between CS, self-reported noise sensitivity, physical symptoms and odor perception (pleasantness, intensity and familiarity) were examined in a sub-sample of high (HCS) and low (LCS) chemical sensitivity. The HCS group reported higher odor intensity and noise sensitivity. No differences were found in odor pleasantness and familiarity ratings, and in physical symptoms. Overall, the results suggest that normal variation in CS has a general, sensory-unspecific basis.
The Postmodern culture today breaks down historically a solid barrier, produced in the modern age, between the language and its users, signs and realities and subject and his object. This phenomenon brings about some translation problems at the same time; interpretative diversity, linguistic derivation in the mass media, permanent reproduction of translated text and meaning`s continuity, definition of translator etc. I examine these problems through a theoretical approach to the mediative nature of the act of translation. I stress on two inevitable aspects of the postmodern linguistic tendencies: connotation generalized in our translation activities and its re-mediative culture. Focusing on a cycling perspective of our translating activities, I could reach the conclusion that the translated text have no relation with the denotative meanings which have been comprised closed and original with the realities from the modern age. A corrected model could be proposed. I call this cycle model of translating process which comprises ① Mediation or Creation ② Re-mediation or Translation ③ Re-re-mediation or Comprehension ④ Verification, Deduction or Correction. Each activity has not only its own translating process but its circulated role for the time in which everyone can participate equally as a reader, a sender, a translator and an individual who makes its contextual needs and desires. This model could show that the translating process is not for fixing a linguistic sign to some closed meanings but for expanding its pertinent meanings to diverse situations. Translating activity is not for making a linguistic norm by itself, but for making appropriate communication with as much of the population as possible.
In the article we compare the role of the dictionary and the lexical database, and address the issue of language register and correctness in dictionaries. We then deal with various types of sense distribution in dictionaries, the history of the word, and the principles of selection of dictionary headwords. We cite the corpus as an essential source for the treatment of meaning, collocation and syntagmatics, and investigate ways of interpreting corpus data – corpus profiling of headwords. We conclude with the thought that a dictionary represents the central language standard, whereby all of the expressed linguistic opinions contained in it must be based on corpus evidence.
This paper presents a comparative study of Judgment and Assessing frames in English and Portuguese. The aim is to verify the possibility of using the FrameNet frames to construct a lexical database for Brazilian Portuguese. The research corpus is composed by 50 legal documents, totalizing 1.055,535 tokens and 39,108 types. Through a contrastive method the Judgment and Assessing frames were selected and translation equivalents for the English lexical units were established. The points considered in this research were the polysemy and the semantic relations of words. The polysemy is the main difficulty in applying FrameNet frames for Portuguese description.
BACKGROUND: Memory impairment and verbal learning are the most common cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia. Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT) is considered to be the most reliable test to asses memory and verbal learning in this mental illness. AIMS: to create one form of the HVLT which would suit our linguistic and cultural context and to study the characteristics of this test in a group of healthy subjects. METHODS: The HVLT consists of a list of 12 words belonging to 3 semantic categories and which are read orally to the subject with an immediate and differed recall. The first part of this work was to select words from a lexical database in order to create the list of the HVLT. The test was then administered to 103 subjects aged from 17- to 45-years-old (mean=27,4; SD =7,3) and having between 1 and 20 years of education ( mean=12,2; SD=5,3). RESULTS: No statistical difference was found within performances of the HVLT across gender and sex. Whereas, years of education was found to have an impact on performances. Although statistically difference was found across level of education. CONCLUSION: Our study permitted us to create one form of the HVLT which well suits our Tunisian context and which we could use to evaluate memory functions among people suffering from schizophrenia.
Linguistic items are meaningful and most of our uses of them are meaningful too. In order for this to be the case, language is bound by a set of correctness-conditions according to which uses of language can be categorized as either correct or incorrect – that is, there are linguistic rules – or so it is at least plausible to suppose. Our question now is not whether or not language is meaningful and normative in this sense but whether those correctness-conditions normatively bind speakers' use of language: does this normativity of language entail the normativity of linguistic usage? Ought speakers of a language to abide by its correctness-conditions? Do linguistic rules entail linguistic norms, or, more pithily, do linguistic rules rule? I shall argue that provided we focus on the appropriate correctness-conditions – correctness-conditions framed at the level of sense rather than that of reference – these do indeed deliver oughts governing use.
How an Embodied Mind Perspective can Influence the Study of Emotion Joshua Ian Davis (jdavis at barnard.edu), Moderator Department of Psychology, Barnard College of Columbia University 3009 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA Christian Keysers (c.m.keysers at rug.nl) Department of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Groningen & BCN NeuroImaging Center, University of Groningen A. Deusinglaan 2, 9713AW Groningen, The Netherlands Fritz Strack (strack at psychologie.uni-wuerzburg.de) University of Wurzburg LS Psychologie II, Rontgenring 10, 97070 Wurzburg, Germany Jamil Zaki (jamil at psych.columbia.edu) Department of Psychology, Columbia University 1190 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY, 10027, USA Keywords: Embodied Mind, Embodied Cognition, Embodiment, Emotion, Affect, Empathy, Botox, Facial Feedback, Neuroimaging, Psychophysiology Embodied approaches to studying the mind have received increasing attention over the last decade (e.g. Barsalou, 2008; Damasio, 1999; Lakoff & Johnson, 1999; Niedenthal, 2007). Common to these approaches is the goal of understanding how our processes for perception and action form a basis for our higher-level thoughts and emotions. While there has been a great deal of interest in embodied cognition as a theoretical stance, there have only been hints at the value of this approach to researchers across the cognitive sciences. This symposium is intended to help illustrate how an embodied mind perspective can change the research questions we ask and the ways we interpret results when studying emotion. We present four lines of research, bringing to bear psychophysiological, muscle paralysis, neuroimaging, and behavioral methods. We aim to broaden the discussion on the role of an embodied approach in emotion research and the cognitive sciences more generally. Jamil Zaki will begin the symposium by presenting research on the physiological mechanisms underlying empathic accuracy. Joshua Davis will then discuss research on the paralyzing effects of Botox on emotional experience. In the third talk, Christian Keysers will explore the embodied nature of the brain mechanisms by which we understand the emotions of others. Finally, Fritz Strack will discuss the various psychological mechanisms by which bodily actions can influence affect. Zaki: Shared physiological states and interpersonal understanding Empathy research has demonstrated that when perceivers and targets share autonomic arousal, perceivers can more accurately recognize those targets’ emotions (empathic accuracy). In particular, empathic accuracy has been shown when changes in skin conductance response for both perceivers and targets are correlated over time (known as physiological linkage). This finding suggests that embodying the states of others is an important route to interpersonal understanding. We replicated and extended this finding, illustrating how these effects depend on qualities of the target. Targets differ in emotional coherence (correlation between targets’ arousal and targets’ affect ratings), and empathic accuracy is highest when perceivers view targets with greater emotional coherence. Targets whose emotional states are accompanied by congruent bodily states become affectively “readable,” partially through facilitating shared arousal. We will discuss these findings and what they reveal about the mechanisms underlying the role of physiological linkage in empathic accuracy. Jamil Zaki will receive his Ph.D. in Psychology from Columbia University in 2010. His work on empathic accuracy has appeared in Psychological Science (Zaki, Bolger, & Ochsner, 2008). He is the recipient of a 2008 Autism Speaks Pre-Doctoral Award. Davis: The effects of Botox on emotional experience Prior research suggests that facial expressions are more than outward signals of what a person feels, but can also influence a person’s emotional experience. Earlier experiments guided participants to voluntarily pose or inhibit facial expressions. The voluntary nature of these tasks can lead to issues (e.g. participant awareness of the hypothesis, distraction, and various cognitive mediating variables) that can make interpretation of the findings more difficult. We compared participants receiving Botox – to treat facial wrinkles – to those receiving a control treatment. Crucially, Botox injections leave muscles in a state of flaccid paralysis by disrupting neural transmission at the
Because of the joining behavior of Persian script and its orthographic variation, the morphological and syntactic annotations of multi-token units meet various issues. By the analysis of Perso-Arabic script and its problems, the various collocation types of the tokens including the compositional, non-compositional and the new semicompositional constructions are described in the present paper. Then, to illustrate these constructions, the static and dynamic multi-token units will be presented for the generative and non-generative structures of the main categories including the verbs, infinitives, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, adjectives and nouns. Defining the multi-token unit templates for these categories is one of the important results of this research. The findings can be input to the segmentation module of the Persian Treebank generator system. The other usage of the present research is in the design and implementation of the morphological analyzers and syntactical parsers.
The process of marking up the syntactic structure of the sentences in a corpus is facilitated by having a graphical tree editor. A type specification constraints the nature of acceptable trees, and visual indication of non-conformities makes corrections easy. Projectivity checking can also be a useful way to notice errors, depending on the linguistic design of the tree type specification. A small test corpus has been marked up using this method. Only the English language has been investigated so far, and the tool takes no other input than the type specification and the corpus. Adding a lexical database is an obvious way to make it more generally useful.
A new method to recognize the Chinese verb-object collocation is proposed on the basis of the conditional random fields(CRFs) model.The CRFs based model is examined with verb subcategorization features,context features,and features of their combination.The experiments are carried on two different Chinese word segmentation and part-of-speech tagging settings,with part-of-speech filtering rules to optimize the experiment.The results show that the best performance is 87.40% in F-score over Tsinghua Chinese Treebank,and 74.70% in F-score over the segmentation and part-of-speech tagging scheme of Peking University.Experimental results show that CRF model is effective in recognizing Chinese verb-object collocation automatically.
In the Computational Linguistics community, much work is put into the creation of large, high-quality linguistic resources, often with complex annotation. In order to make these resources accessible to non-technical audiences, formalisms for searching and filtering are needed, like the TIGER corpus query language. Recently, augmented treebanks have been published, including the SALSA corpus which features frame semantic annotation on top of syntactic structure. We design an extension for the TIGER language which allows searching for frame structures along with syntactic annotation. To achieve this, the TIGER ob ject model is expanded to include frame semantics, while remaining fully backwards-compatible and add these extensions to our own implementation of TIGER.
The rise of a standard language is inextricably connected to value judgements about linguistic variants. During standardisation processes certain linguistic expressions are marked as ‘correct’ and prestigious and subsequently selected as a standard form whereas other linguistic features are labelled as ‘bad’ and corrupt use of language. As Haugen rightly points out, ‘[w]here a norm is to be established, the problem will be as complex as the sociolinguistic structure of the people involved’ (1997, p. 349). It is, after all, the socio-political context that influences the evaluation of the language usage. An established norm, in turn, has many socio-political consequences. This work will be concerned with the establishment of linguistic norms in the history of specific languages and the socio-political contexts in which these norms arose as well as their influence on actual usage. More precisely, this study seeks to trace the development of the subjunctive mood in English and German, with a special focus on the Austrian variety,1 during part of their standardisation processes, namely the eighteenth century. As grammarians were attempting to shape and codify a prestige variety during this period, the question arises whether and to what extent these normative grammarians influenced the development of the inflectional subjunctive. After all, the subjunctive mood has been claimed to have been on the decline in both English and German in the eighteenth century (cf. for English: Strang, 1970, p. 209; Turner, 1980, p. 272; Görlach, 2001, p. 122; for German: von Polenz, 1994, pp. 261–263).
The goal of the presented project is to assign a structure of clauses to Czech sentences from the Prague Dependency Treebank (PDT) as a new layer of syntactic annotation, a layer of clause structure. The annotation is based on the concept of segments, linguistically motivated and easily automatically detectable units. The task of the annotators is to identify relations among segments, especially relations of super/subordination, coordination, apposition and parenthesis. Then they identify individual clauses forming complex sentences. In the pilot phase of the annotation, 2,699 sentences from PDT were annotated with respect to their sentence structure.
The paper draws attention to the discrepancy between norms described in linguistic books (grammar books, dictionaries and language consulting books) and usage.Part of the reason for this discrepancy is the increasingly stronger influence of media on the speech of young people (and other speakers of the Croatian language), but other influences are discussed too.Among them, the problem of the non-distinction of functional styles in the concrete speech situation is isolated.The analysis is based on the materials gathered in the last ten years, and examples are presented at all levels of language.Key words: the Croatian language, standard Croatian language, usage, functional styles, aberrations from the linguistic norm Govorimo hrvatski (We Speak Croatian), a daily radio show which has been broadcasted for several years now, often features a number of queries related to differences in language realizations in different social situations.It is not necessary to be a linguist to observe that discrepancy.In fact, it is not even necessary to be a native speaker of the Croatian language, because even a non-native speaker proficient in the Croatian language can see that in everyday speech, native speakers do not necessary follow linguistic rules.There are differences in pronunciation, linguistic constructions, lexicon, etc.Even the first generations of Croatian immigrants, who use Croatian when talking to each other, see the influence of their new language, for example English, which they use in everyday situations.There are many reasons for these linguistic differences.To explain them, one should understand the meaning of terms such as language, standard language, usage, dialect and functional style.
Identifying optimal feature sets in Text Categorization(TC) is crucial in terms of improving the effectiveness. In this study, experiments on feature expansion were conducted using author provided keyword sets and article titles from typical scientific journal articles. The tool used for expanding feature sets is WordNet, a lexical database for English words. Given a data set and a lexical tool, this study presented that feature expansion with synonymous relationship was significantly effective on improving the results of TC. The experiment results pointed out that when expanding feature sets with synonyms using on classifier names, the effectiveness of TC was considerably improved regardless of word sense disambiguation. 키워드: 자질선정, 의미기반, 문서범주화 WordNet, text categorization, semantics, feature selection, feature expansion * 이화여자대학교 사회과학대학 문헌정보학 조교수(echung@ewha.ac.kr) ■논문접수일자:2009년 8월 16일 ■최초심사일자:2009년 8월 20일 ■게재확정일자:2009년 8월 28일 ■정보관리학회지, 26(3): 261-278, 2009. [DOI:10.3743/KOSIM.2009.26.3.261] 262 정보관리학회지 제26권 제3호 2009
In this paper semantic classes of Czech verbs are presented as they are obtained from the lexical database VerbaLex that has recently been built at the NLP Centre FI MU. At the moment we have in VerbaLex 82 semantic classes covering 10,482 Czech verb lemmata and 19,556 verb valency frames. We discuss the criteria for establishing semantic classes: the most important one is grouping verbs according to their senses. The second one exploits relations between semantic classes of Czech verbs and semantic roles and subcategorization features as they are used in VerbaLex valency frames. We also touch on the issue of the ontology that could be used to describe the meanings of the verbs in the semantic classes. The semantic classification of Czech verbs can be extended for other languages via Interlingual Index (ILI) existing in WordNets and it can be used in the various applications in the NLP area (machine translation, syntactic analysis, semantic search, information extraction and others).
Abstract This chapter discusses the theme of this volume which is about violence in the language of Victorian novels. It analyzes the works of several notable Victorian writers including Charles Dickens, Anne Brontë, George Eliot and Thomas Hardy using narratography. It explains that narratography is the apprehension of mediated narrative increments as traced out in prose or image by the analytic act of reading. This chapter argues that novel violence violates not the literary community but the linguistic norm through their calculated deviance.
Any work of art is an original bearer of information. At the same time every cultural phenomenon codes a message through the linguistic means reflecting the specific character of the given work of art. In connection with the individualisation of expressive means in the 20th century the tendency to informational isolation appears in all kinds of art the so-called ciphering of the sense that is not lying on the surface. Not only the quantity of breaches of those linguistic norms, which a composer, transferring a message to the listener, uses in his work, is of primary importance for the composer, but to what extent they are important for the listener and aimed at him. Depending on various circumstances (socio-cultural, moral, aesthetic, etc.) the listener can form his own hypotheses concerning deciphering of the concrete text, revealing his cross-initiatives. Resting upon the semiotic investigation, the author of the article tried to mark out the stages of the listener's perception of a 20th-century musical composition through the definitions of codes and subcodes.
This dissertation presents research examining the role of contextual patterns, salience, and individual differences in the determination of how much is incidentally remembered from a cognitive task performed during the exploration of a naturalistic outdoor environment. Previous empirical findings suggest that the human mind often selects cues for the storage and retrieval of information based upon a rigid, predetermined hierarchy, frequently disregarding useful contextual cues in favor of features most directly relevant to the information itself. Drawing from environmental psychological principles, factors are outlined that contribute to the salience of contextual cues, the most important of which is the cognitive integration of the context with the observer and the integration of both with the task or mental operation at hand. Such integration is referred to as "contextual integration" and may represent an over-arching schema that serves as a cognitive or affective indicator of personal significance. The first of two reported experiments demonstrated superior memory for contexrually integrated stimuli over those given more rudimentary consideration. The second experiment found changes in memory resulting from an interaction between the type of task performed and the mediating role of a cognitive style known as field-independence. This interaction supports the notion that there are predictable patterns to the cognitive management of contextual information. The effects of these patterns are better accommodated by contextual integration than any single construct such as personal relevance or depth of processing. Furthermore, arousal states and affective ratings of the environment, in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively, showed differential changes in reaction to more or less integrated situations. Conducted almost entirely in a natural environment, the research presented attempts to more closely merge the empirical ideals of the environmental and cognitive areas in psychology.
ABSTRACT. We present an overview of the Index Thomisticus Treebank project (IT-TB). The IT-TB consists of around 60,000 tokens from the Index Thomisticus by Roberto Busa SJ, an 11million-token Latin corpus of the texts by Thomas Aquinas. We briefly describe the annotation guidelines, shared with the Latin Dependency Treebank (LDT). The application of data-driven dependency parsers on IT-TB and LDT data is reported on. We present training and parsing results on several datasets and provide evaluation of learning algorithms and techniques. Furthermore, we introduce the IT-TB valency lexicon extracted from the treebank. We report on quantitative data of the lexicon and provide some statistical measures on subcategorisation structures. RÉSUMÉ. Nous présentons une vue d’ensemble du projet de l’Index Thomisticus Treebank (IT-TB). L’IT-TB consiste d’environ 60,000 occurrences tirées de l’Index Thomisticus de Roberto Busa SJ, un corpus de onze millions de mots latins de Thomas d’Aquin. Nous décrivons brièvement les règles d’étiquetage, qui sont en commun avec la Latin Dependency Treebank (LDT). Nous décrivons l’application des parseurs probabilistes dépendanciels sur les données de l’IT-TB et de la LDT. Nous présentons les résultats de l’entraînement et de l’analyse syntactique sur plusieurs ensembles des données et nous fournissons une évaluation des algorithmes et des techniques d’apprentissage. En outre, nous introduisons le lexique de valence de l’IT-TB tiré de la treebank. Nous reportons les données quantitatives du lexique et nous fournissons quelques mesures statistiques sur les structures de sous-catégorisation.
Norms are essential to the human condition. Whether in the guise of tradition, culture, canon or rules, norms are therefore central to studies in the humanities. This book focuses on Russian language culture of the post-revolutionary and post-Soviet periods, times when norms — linguistic and otherwise — have been eagerly debated, challenged, broken and redefined. Exploring the intersections between linguistic authority and creative response, an international team of scholars examines different realms of linguistic practice (literary fiction, internet slang, literary criticism and aesthetics, writers’ blogs, linguistic play) and various arenas for “talk about talk” (the classroom, blogs, the media, or the courtroom). By combining various approaches and disciplines — linguistics, literary criticism, new media studies — the book as a whole explores the multiplicity of meanings that are accorded to the notion of linguistic norms in the Russian community. The result is both a broad and a detailed picture of important trends in modern Russian language culture.
We review lexical Association Measures (AMs) that have been employed by past work in extracting multiword expressions. Our work contributes to the understanding of these AMs by categorizing them into two groups and suggesting the use of rank equivalence to group AMs with the same ranking performance. We also examine how existing AMs can be adapted to better rank English verb particle constructions and light verb constructions. Specifically, we suggest normalizing (Pointwise) Mutual Information and using marginal frequencies to construct penalization terms. We empirically validate the effectiveness of these modified AMs in detection tasks in English, performed on the Penn Treebank, which shows significant improvement over the original AMs. 1
Taking as its basis a survey of the 20th century Korean lexicon, this paper explores its lexical properties through examination of its lexical character, its extralinguistic background and various lexical aspects, and provides an overview of important achievements in lexical studies through the construction and arrangement of lexical data and through the examination of lexical studies. The major results are as follows: First, three main properties of the 20th century Korean lexicon were found: (1) Although it consists of native words, Chinese words, and foreign words from the West, native words are conspicuous for the motivation process of forming words, and highly developed in terms of symbolic words and sense words. (2) Changes in politics and social structures in the 20th century are reflected both directly and indirectly in the Korean lexicon. (3) Complex aspects have appeared due to the expansion of the lexicon, the mass production of new words including foreign words, differentiation between North Korea and South Korea and between old and young generations, and the appearance of an Internet vocabulary in the lexicon of young generations. Second, three significant achievements in 20th century studies on the Korean lexicon were identified: (1) Following on the construction of a lexical database, standard words were established, dictionaries were written, frequencies of words were examined, and basic words were chosen. (2) The government and various civil organizations have focused on lexical purification, with satisfactory results. (3) Books on lexicology and lexical history were published, research on lexical fields and lexical relations was activated and methodologies for lexical education were explored. Lastly, the 20th century Korean lexicon evolved complex and diverse features in response to the demands of the times. On the one hand, lexical studies during this time showed great development and produced significant results, both in quantity and quality. On the other hand, problems continued to exist in areas such as: (ⅰ) limitations in awareness of the importance of the lexicon; (ⅱ) objectives, targets and methodologies of lexical studies; and (ⅲ) lack of research scholars in this field. These problems remain to be addressed by the 21st Korean lexicon.
Chinese chunking plays an important role in natural language processing. This paper presents a large margin method for Chinese chunking based on structural SVMs (support vector machines). First, a sequence labeling model and the formulation of the learning problem are introduced for Chinese chunking problem, and then the cutting plane algorithm is applied to efficiently approximate the optimal solution of the optimization problem. Finally, an improved F1 loss function is proposed to tackle Chinese chunking. The loss function can scale the F1 loss value to the length of the sentence to adjust the margin accordingly, leading to more effective constraint inequalities. Experiments are conducted on UPENN Chinese Treebank-4 (CTB4), and the hamming loss function is compared with the improved F1 loss function. The experimental results show that the training algorithm with the improved F1 loss function can achieve higher performance than the Hamming loss function. The overall F1 score of Chinese chunking obtained with this approach is 91.61%, which is higher than the performance produced by the
SEER, Vol.87,M. 3, July2009 Reviews Marder,Stephen. A Supplementary Russian-English Dictionary (ASRED2). Second edition. SlavicaPublishers, Bloomington, IN, 2007.xxv+ 736pp. $44.95. The first editionofthisdictionary came out in 1992.A corrected reprint of 1994was followed by a Moscow mirror editionin 1995.For some readers, oftennativeRussianspecialists, thedictionary was something ofa shock,a shockforrecovery from whichtheMoscowmirror edition ismorethanample evidence.Peoplelikethepresent reviewer, somewhat takenaback(something regrettably reflected in his reviewof 1994: SEER, 72, 1, pp. 161-62),but nonetheless massively impressed, wenton to use the dictionary morethan regularly overthenext, well,fifteen years.His first-edition copymaywellstill be inpretty goodcondition, butthere canbe no doubtthatthissecondedition will,whilethefirst onewillforall sorts ofreasonscontinue tobe used,replace it. Time has passedand,within thattime,numerous dictionaries ofRussian have appeared,ofall sorts- in thefirst place,ASRED 1 anticipated them, openedmanyeyesinthesociety whoselanguageitwasrevealing, andinspired them.AndASRED 2, quitedifferent from them, providing invaluable, lexical and grammatical information and employing toolsto facilitate easyuse and accessibility, reappears, considerably expanded,toteachthemand takethem further. The first edition as producedbySlavicawasextremely durable;thissecond looksindestructible. It is a hardback, beautifully producedby thepublisher and,particularly, bytheauthor(though theauthorofa dictionary has to be a 'compiler', itseemsthatinthiscase we really aremuchclosertohavingan 'author').There are otherthings to do in life,alas, and theymustrender it put-downable, but it is mostcertainly all but unput-downable. And the wonderful listof such adjectivesin Russian on p. 79, under vnusabel'nyj, reinforces sucha conviction. Thereis a setofpreliminary pages:after theContents (no page number) comesthe Introduction to the Second Edition(ASRED 2), pp. i-iii,where theauthor buildsonASRED 1and further justifies it.Therefollows theIntroductionto theFirstEdition,pp. v-x, giving invaluableinformation on how besttousethedictionary and reminding us thatthedictionary's original guidingprinciple was 'to fillan alarming - and exasperating gap between whathasbeenrecorded andwhatitispossibletorecord', something inwhich it succeededmostnotably.On pp. xi-xxwe have a SelectedBibliography (Updated),withRussiansources(pp. xi-xviii)and Englishsources(pp. xviiixx ).We have thenAcknowledgments (SecondEdition), p. xxi,Acknowledgments (First Edition), p. xxii,ListofAbbreviations and Conventional Symbols (Updated),pp. xxiii-xxiv, and a RussianAlphabet, p. xxv.The bodyofthe dictionary is in thefollowing 736pages. Importantly, thereareextremely clearand fullentries: theheadwordsand other wordsandphrases within entries areall inboldcharacters and stressed; REVIEWS 527 morphological juncturebetweenstemand endingis marked;thereis exhaustivecross -referring to relatedentries; and an enormousamountofcultural information ofall sorts is given.One can open anypage to giveexamplesof thelast:autizm andAFE on p. 23,pénsija pò [vózrast]u on p. 83,kosój on p. 263, mitëk, mitrofánuska, andMít'kaonp. 323,ocepjátka onp. 406,Pjatèrocka onp. 506, slivát' on p. 579,urjük on p. 665, utjug on p. 669, and cetvërka on p. 706,each page opened withoutsearchingand additionalexamplesbeing citableon almost eachpage.Manyentries havesub-entries; so,forexample,ustrójstuo has eighty-four, spreadoverpp. 666-68, and úxohas twenty-nine, spreadover pp. 669-70 (and witha finequotationto illustrate otkúda rastút usi).The translations are also extremely apt,withfullexplanationand expansionas necessary. One couldgo on and on; itwouldseemto thisreviewer thattogo on and on hereisnotat all appropriate ornecessary - ASRED 2 is a labouroflove, an astonishing treasure troveoflinguistic, literary, political,cultural, social and scientific information aboutRussiaand theRussianlanguage.ASRED 1 was alreadyquitea phenomenon; ASRED 2 notonlyconfirms thatphenomenon but demonstrates, fifteen yearslater,thatit remainssupremely useful and needed,and a realjoy through whichtoflit and inwhichto dwell. StAndrews University Ian Press Sovik, MargretheB. Support, Resistance and Pragmatism: An Examination of Motivation inLanguage Policy inKharkiv, Ukraine. ActaUniversitatis Stockholmiensis, Stockholm SlavicStudies,34. Department ofSlavicLanguages andLiteratures, Stockholm University, Stockholm, 2007.356pp. Figures. Tables.Illustrations. Bibliographical references. Appendices. SEK 343.00 (paperback). The 'languagequestion'in Ukraine- specifically, the role and statusof Ukrainian and Russian- isone ofthoseheatedand controversial issuesthat repeatedly inserts itself intodomesticpoliticaldebates,especially, it seems, during electoral campaigns, whenpresidential candidates and political parties competing forvotesfindit to be a ratherusefultool formobilizing their supporters. Not infrequently, italso servesas a sourceofcontention between Kyivand Moscow.Much oftheproblemresidesin thefactthatin Ukraine languagepreference and usage largelyoverlapwiththe country's regional structure and conflicting politicalvalues,thereby setting the stageforthe 'languagequestion'to becomehighly politicized. The book underreview, whichwas written as a doctoraldissertation at Stockholm University, addressestheproblemin a veryspecific and, indeed, unorthodoxmanner.Instead of examiningpolicies and legal norms or analysing statistical data suchas thelanguageofinstruction in schoolsand universities or the resultsof country-wide sociologicalsurveys, whichhas beenthenormin thescholarly literature, theauthorfocuses on howthepredominantly Russian-speaking residents ofKharkiv - Ukraine's secondlargest...
Considering the differential successes and failures in adult second language acquisition (SLA), many researchers have urged that studies on L2 ultimate attainment should identify the domains in which adult L2 learners are (or are not) able to attain native-like proficiency levels, hence providing a descriptive basis for the learning potential in adult SLA. In particular, both Birdsong (2005) and Sorace (2005) contend that at the L2 end-state, the fundamental difference between native speakers and highly proficient late L2 learners often reside in the processing system, thereby leading to minor quantitative and/or qualitative departures from monolingual norms. To test the above claim, this study explored whether a nativelike lexical processing system can be attained by advanced L2 learners who start acquiring Mandarin Chinese as a foreign language long after the onset of puberty. To this end, the study employed the advanced-learner approach, recruiting 23 adult L2 Chinese learners, whose L2 reading skills were comparable to native Chinese speakers, and 23 native speakers of Chinese as controls. Two online reading tasks that aimed to tap into sentence-level Chinese character recognition were administered to the participants. Data revealed that, while the two groups were comparable in terms of their overall Chinese reading ability, both similarities and differences co-existed between them with regard to the underlying lexical processing procedure and the nature of the activated lexical information; nevertheless, these L2 learners were still able to achieve functional equivalence with natives at the performance level. Based upon these findings, implications for L2 end-state lexical processing system will be discussed.
The article deals with the features of spoken language in the written discourse of live text commentary, a modern genre of online journalism. After locating the new genre at the intersection of spoken live commentary, computer-mediated communication and everyday conversation, it identifies some of the features conveying spokenness on the phonological/graphological, lexical, syntactic and pragmatic levels. Based on data from recent sports reports, the article argues that orality represents an unstated norm in the interactive subtype of LTC found, for instance, in the online British newspaper the Guardian. Spoken features and the pseudo-conversational structure of the reports are devices whereby the authors of the texts create a sense of immediacy in their reports, on the one hand, and construct and enhance the illusion of an interpersonal speech event, on the other. The linguistic characteristics of LTC, which reflect the hybrid nature of the genre, can be seen as serving the purpose of social bonding within the virtual group of readers.
All too often work in computational linguistics on the acquisition of conceptual descriptions takes place in isolation from work on concepts in psychology and neural science. We feel this is a mistake as evidence from these related disciplines can provide us with better ways of evaluating our results. In the talk I will present work in CIMEC on using cognitive evidence to evaluate the results of lexical acquisition work - specifically, using feature norms to evaluate the acquisition of features, and using EEG data to evaluate the results of categorization experiments.
Résumé Dans cette étude, qui se base sur un petit corpus de textes français et suédois originaux et traduits, l’usage des formes lexicales et pronominales en fonction anaphorique est examiné. Comme prévu, les formes pronominales s’avèrent plus fréquentes dans les textes français que dans les textes suédois, où la répétition du SN lexical thématique prédomine. Cette différence est en général liée aux normes rhétoriques ou stylistiques des cultures respectives, telles que la plus haute fréquence de marqueurs explicites de cohérence textuelle et le besoin plus fort de variation lexicale dans les langues romanes comparées aux langues germaniques, mais l’absence systématique de pronoms anaphoriques dans les textes suédois demande une autre explication. Elle semble due à une répugnance générale des pronoms personnels suédois inanimés ( den, det ) d’assumer une fonction anaphorique.
The relativization of the concept of linguistic norm has brought into question the concept of linguistic error, which has been offered scientific explanations. The traditional dichotomy correct versus incorrect has been disputed by alternative terminologies. These new terms, however, still presuppose the existence of linguistic standards. That is why schools continue (and will continue) to treat errors by means of correction.
OBJECTIVES: This study is the first in a series designed to develop and norm new theoretically motivated sentence tests for children. The purpose was to examine the independent contributions of word frequency (i.e., how often words occur in language) and lexical density (the number of similar sounding words or "neighbors" to a target word) to the perception of key words in the new sentence set. DESIGN: Twenty-four children with normal hearing aged 5 to 12 yrs served as participants; they were divided into four equal age-matched groups. The stimuli consisted of 100 semantically neutral sentences that were 5 to 7 words in length. Each sentence contained 3 key words that were controlled for word frequency and lexical density. Words with few neighbors come from sparse neighborhoods, whereas words with many neighbors come from dense neighborhoods. The key words within a sentence belonged to one of the four lexical categories: (1) high-frequency sparse, (2) low-frequency dense, (3) high-frequency dense, and (4) low-frequency sparse. Participants were administered the sentence list and the 300 key words in isolation at 65 dB SPL. Each participant group was tested in spectrally matched noise at one of the four signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs -2, 0, 2, and 4 dB). The percent of words correctly identified was calculated as a function of SNR, key word context (sentences vs. words), and key word lexical category. RESULTS: SNR had a significant effect on the recognition of key words in sentences and in isolation; performance improved at higher SNRs. There were significant main effects of word frequency and lexical density as well as a significant interaction between the two lexical factors. In isolation, high-frequency words were recognized more accurately than low-frequency words. In both word and sentence contexts, sparse words yielded greater accuracy than dense words, irrespective of word frequency. There was a modest but significant negative correlation between lexical density and the recognition of words in isolation and in sentences. CONCLUSIONS: Word frequency and lexical density seem to influence word recognition independently in children with normal hearing. This is similar to earlier results in adults with normal hearing. In addition, there seems to be an interaction between the two factors, with lexical density being more heavily weighted than word frequency. These results give us further insight into the way children organize and access words from long-term lexical memory in a relational way. Our results showed that lexical effects were most evident at poorer SNRs. This may have important implications for assessing spoken-word recognition performance in children with sensory aids because they typically receive a degraded auditory signal.
Based on a structural approach and semi-directive interviews, this study analyzes athletic rules and legal consciousness of adolescents in relation to their contexts of athletic practice (institutionalized versus self-organized context). The lexical analysis (with alceste software) demonstrates that the institutionalized context leads mainly to a civilized consciousness where legal norms transcend individuals; on the other hand, the self-regulated context is the basis for a responsible and moral consciousness. These results contradict common beliefs associated with these two sport practices.
A text is the carrier of language,and the foundation of cognizing and distinguishing its styles and functions.Text typology offers TQA objective and theoretical underpinnings.Classification and cognition of text types is a fundamental and cognitive approach to text types and has the original guiding effects on TQA.Different text types are meant not only to make up different writing forms including lexical features,styles and norms of writing,rhetorical devices,etc,but also to form different language functions,different text focuses,different TT purposes and translation methods.Obviously,these differences require us to establish different assessment criteria and principles,which provide us with TQA references,and lend themselves to further explore and study TQA model so as to make it maneuverable and practical.
Grammar extraction in deep formalisms has received remarkable attention in recent years. We recognise its value, but try to create a more precision-oriented grammar, by hand-crafting a core grammar, and learning lexical types and lexical items from a treebank. The study we performed focused on German, and we used the Tiger treebank as our resource. A completely hand-written grammar in the framework of HPSG forms the inspiration for our core grammar, and is also our frame of reference for evaluation.
This paper reports a sociolinguistic study of the state of Greek language in Australia as spoken by native-speaking Greek immigrants and their children. Emphasis is given to the analysis of the linguistic behaviour of these Greek Australians which are attributed to contact with English and to other environmental, social and linguistic influences. The paper discusses the non-standard phenomena in various types of inter-lingual transferences in terms of their incidence and causes and, in correlation with social, linguistic and psychological factors in order to determine the extent of language assimilation, attrition, and the content and context and medium of the language-event. The paper also discusses the transferences from English to Greek and vice- versa from a qualitative and quantitative perspective, of the phonemic, lexical, morphological, syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and prosodic deviations. During the last 170 years of settlement, Greek Australians know and use a new communicative norm with some degree of stability, the Ethnolect, (a non-standard variety of language used by an ethnic group in a static or dynamic bilingual situation) which serves their linguistic needs.
The Old Czech hapax legomenon bnedovánie is used in the adaptation of the medieval knight romance Duke Ernest (Herzog Ernst). There are two hypotheses based on the lexical system: 1) the corrupt word is an archaic part of the word family constituted by the adjectiv sbedný and its derivates and it means,a (brilliant and amusing) social behaviour corresponding with norms of court; (but we cannot satisfactorily explain word-formative processes leading from the sbedný to the bnedovánie); 2) the word is the corrupt form of Old Czech noun burdovánie (but its use is not convincing in the existing context).
We examined whether bilinguals’ conceptual representation of homonyms in one language are influenced by meanings in the other. 117 Spanish-English bilinguals generated sentences for 62 English homonyms that were also cognates with Spanish and which shared at least one meaning with Spanish (e.g., plane/plano). Production probabilities for each meaning were calculated. A stepwise multiple regression revealed that whether a meaning was shared with Spanish or not accounted for a significant portion of the variance, even after entering production probabilities from published monolingual norms. (Twilley et al., 1994). Homonyms classified as highly polarized based on monolingual responses became less polarized if the less frequent meaning was shared whereas non-polarized homonyms increased in polarization if the dominant meaning was shared. Results are discussed in terms of models of bilingual conceptual and lexical representation as well as theories of ambiguity resolution.
Semantic intrusions are inappropriate responses frequently observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease. They belong to the same category as the words to be remembered, but their prototypic value remains largely unexplored. The prototype is the most representative word in a particular lexical category. The prototypic value is measured according to different criteria: written and oral lexical frequency, frequency of use, degree of typicality, degree of familiarity and rank of quotation. The objective of the study was to evaluate the prototypic value of intrusions produced by 17 Alzheimer's patients with mild to severe dementia, during the cued recall of the Grober & Buschke procedure (RL/RI 16 items). The prototypic value was compared to the categorial norms provided by 1) 17 control subjects and 2) the lexical database "Lexique 3". The results show that intrusions had a significantly higher prototypic value than targeted items. The prototypic value increased with the progression of the disease, and according to the evaluation criteria used. Thus with the criteria "frequency of use", "degree of typicality" and "degree of familiarity," the prototypic value increased exponentially with the severity of dementia. In contrast, in spite of the development of the pathology, the prototypic value decreased when assessed by the criteria of "rank of quotation", and "lexical frequency" (oral and written). In conclusion, the qualitative analysis of the prototypic value of intrusion errors in Alzheimers opens up new clinical and methodological considerations.
Speech monitoring encompasses detection and self-repair of errors.This paper first reviews types of errors and self-repairs,then focuses on three theoretical accounts of how the monitoring mechanism works to detect and correct errors.Product-based theory assumes that there is a monitor which is equipped with phonological,lexical and syntactical rules and pragmatic norms and whose sole function is to monitor errors at varying levels when language is produced.Perception-based theory posits that a central monitor within the conceptualizer functions to accomplish the monitoring job.Node structure theory accounts for monitoring from the node activation hypothesis,i.e.,detection and correction of errors is tied to the activation strength or level of node committed or uncommitted.
Abstract: The Web 2.0 maximizes Internet concept of encouraging its users to cooperate effectively for offer of virtual services and content organization. Among various potentialities of Web 2.0, folksonomy appears as a result of free attribution of tags to Web's resources by user himself. Folksonomies describe Web's resources; however, they aren't integrated in metadata in general. In order for them to be intelligible by machines and therefore used in Semantics Web context, they have to be automatically allocated to specific metadata elements. There are many metadata patterns. The focus of this investigation will be Dublin Core (DC) which is a gathering of metadata for description of electronic resources and which has been adopted by Institutional Repositories as a way of standardization and interoperability. We propose an investigation which intends to identify of metadata originated from folksonomies and integrate them in a DC Ontology extended so as to allow that values reported in tags may be conveniently gathered by protocol for metadata harvesting, specifically Open Archives Initiative - Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH). This paper will present results of pilot study developed in beginning of investigation as well as metadata preliminarily defined. Metadata may be defined as a group of for description of resources [1]. There are many standards of metadata, however, in repository context; we can point out Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) or simply Dublin Core (DC) which is a metadata pattern for description of electronic resources. This standard is well diffused, used globally and on a broad scale due to some factors: a) it was created specifically for description of electronic elements; b) it has an initiative which is responsible for its development, maintenance and spreading, Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI); c) it is group of metadata used for protocol Open Archives Initiative - Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH), a mechanism for data transfer between digital repositories. The insertion of metadata in repositories may be done by authors themselves, professionals who mediate deposit or of final users. The more active participation of users in construction and organization of Internet contents is result of evolution of technologies used in Web, so-called Web 2.0, it is 'the network as platform, spanning all connected devices; Web 2.0 applications are those that make most of intrinsic advantages of that platform: delivering software as a continually-updated service that gets better more people use it, consuming and remixing data from multiple sources, including individual users, while providing their own data and services in a form that allows remixing by others, creating network effects through an architecture of participation, and going beyond page metaphor of Web 1.0 to deliver rich user experiences.' [2]. Among possibilities of Web 2.0 Folksonomy comes up as the result of personal free tagging of and objects (anything with an URL) for one's own retrieval. The tagging is done in a social environment (shared and open to others). The act of tagging is done by person consuming information [3]. The tags which make up a folksonomy would be key-words, categories or metadata [4]. In this brief definition of tag, we can notice that when attributed by users they can represent different roles. In a study [5][6] following roles are pointed out: Identifying What (or Who) it is About, Identifying What it Is, Identifying Who Owns It, Refining Categories, Identifying Qualities or Characteristics, Self Reference and Task Organizing. In another study, Kinds of Tags (KoT), which compared tags with DC metadata elements, authors observed that there are some tags which cannot be inserted in any of already existing and therefore, concluded that other metadata may be defined in order to include descriptions arising from folksonomies. Some probable which were identified: Action_Towards_Resource, To_Be_Used_In, Rate e Depth [7][8]. The KoT is being developed in partnership with following universities: Universidade do Minho (Portugal), University of Bologna (Italy), UKOLN (United Kingdom), Universidad Carlos III (Spain), La Trobe University (Australia) and Universit? Libr? de Bruxelles -Facult? de Philosophie et Lettres (Belgium) and has objective of verifying how tags derived from folksonomies can be normalized aiming at their interoperability with metadata standards, specifically DC. Summing up, metadata are groups of for description of digital resources, holding different standards, among them DC which is adopted by Repositories as basis for protocol for metadata harvesting (o OAI-PMH). In Web 2.0 context, folksonomies arise, which are result of Web resource tagging by its own users. Tags are a complementary form of description which expresses user's view of resource being used. It can be observed through preliminary results of KoT project that current of description defined in DCMI Metadata Terms do not include all descriptive attributed by resource users by means of these tags. In context shown, giving continuity to analysis resulting from KoT project, we propose an investigation which aims at identifying metadata derived from folksonomies and integrate them in a DC Ontology extended so as to enable that values reported in tags may be conveniently gathered by protocol for metadata harvesting. Being so, we intend to develop a qualitative approach research and answer following questions: Q1 - Which metadata are necessary to contain folksonomy values?; Q2 - Which metadata should be created and which is their relation with already existing ones in Dublin Core?; Q3 - Which codification schemes should be used and what is their relation to already recommended by DCMI?; Q4 - Which Ontology related to DC already enable access to previously established conceptualizations? Q5 - Accomplishing what is stipulated in DCAM, what is extension of DC Ontology which should be made available openly? The procedures are divided in four stages: 1) Analysing tags contained in KoT project dataset- at this stage we will analyse all tags in relation to resources to which they have been attributed. Complementarily, to settle doubts, it will be necessary to turn to lexical resources (dictionaries, encyclopaedias, Word Net, Wikipedia, etc) and to analyse tags in relation to its users to understand functionality of tag attributed as a metadata element. At this stage a pilot study will be developed to refine methodology proposed to verify if variants proposed for grouping and analysing tags are adequate to identify probable new metadata elements which could be extracted from folksonomies. 2) Propose complementary metadata to DC - Establishing description originated from folksonomies based on DC standard, DCAM model, ISO Standard 15836-2003 and NISO Standard Z39.85-2007 norms. At this stage we intend to propose and/or qualifiers complementary to DC. 3) Forming an Ontology - Here we intend to fulfil Integration of DC Ontologies with and/or qualifiers derived from folksonomies. The ontology will be created from Prot?g? tool and coded in OWL. 4) Validation of proposal - carried out by scientific community as methodology and results obtained will be presented in relevant events and scientific magazines and by DCMI Social Tagging community through investigations via online questionnaires and workshops proposed to community. It is intended that results of research may provide support so that applications based on Artificial Intelligence permit automation of harvesting processes including description provided from folksonomies. This paper will present results of pilot study (that is being finalized) alongside with preliminary results of first research stage: tag analysis. This stage will be done in following phases: a) Analysis and grouping of tags in their variant forms; b) Analysis of tags in relation to DC metadata and its qualifiers. The preliminary results of KoT point to possible proposal of some metadata or element refinements to DCMI. Those terms will potentially accommodate tags that currently do not have a metadata holder. The results of this research will therefore allow to determinate if KoT preliminary findings are verified and in which extension. The final paper will conclude with this discussion.
While large-scale corpora and various corpus query tools have long been recognized as essential language resources, the value of word association norms as language resources has been largely overlooked. This paper conducts some initial comparisons of the lexical relationships observed within Japanese collocation data extracted from a large corpus using the Japanese language version of the Sketch Engine (SkE) tool (Srdanović et al., 2008) and the relationships found within Japanese word association sets taken from the large-scale Japanese Word Association Database (JWAD) under ongoing construction by Joyce (2005, 2007). The comparison results indicate that while some relationships are common to both linguistic resources, many lexical relationships are only observed in one resource. These findings suggest that both resources are necessary in order to more adequately cover the diverse range of lexical relationships. Finally, the paper reflects briefly on the implementation of association-based word-search strategies into electronic dictionaries proposed by Zock and Bilac (2004) and Zock (2006).