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16504 papers
Automatically detecting the intent of an utterance is important for various downstream natural language processing tasks. This task is also called Dialogue Act Classification (DAC) and was primarily researched on spoken one-to-one conversations. The rise of social media has made this an interesting data source to explore within DAC, although it comes with some difficulties: non-standard form, variety of language types (across and within platforms), and quickly evolving norms. We therefore investigate the robustness of DAC on social media data in this paper. More concretely, we provide a benchmark that includes cross-domain data splits, as well as a variety of improvements on our transformer-based baseline. Our experiments show that lexical normalization is not beneficial in this setup, balancing the labels through resampling is beneficial in some cases, and incorporating context is crucial for this task and leads to the highest performance improvements 7 F1 percentage points in-domain and 20 cross-domain).
Suppose you say to yourself, “If I cut the pie the way it should be then meanings must be in the head!”1 In other, less catchy words: expressions of natural languages understood by intrinsically identical people must have the same meaning. What could meanings be if this is true? The standard answer is that they could be concepts—composable mental symbols— assembled in the minds of those who interpret linguistic expressions. For example, the meaning of ‘mothers’ could be a complex concept built from the meanings of its constituents (presumably, the noun ‘mother’ and the plural morpheme ‘-s’) in a way corresponding to its morpho-syntactic structure. There are at least three objections to this type of meaning internalism. The first is that it is vacuous. We are told that for one thing (e.g., the word ‘mother’) to have a certain meaning is for it to be associated with another (e.g., the concept MOTHER) that has the same meaning. This seems about as revealing as saying that for a dish to be spicy is for it to be associated with a spicy taste. Interpreting a word may involve translating it to Mentalese but then we still have to say what the translation means.2 The second objection is that the proposal overcounts meanings. ‘Mother’ is associated with multiple concepts: one that applies to someone whose egg unites with a sperm producing a child, another that applies to someone who gives birth to a child, a third that applies to someone who raises a child. And yet, ‘mother’ does not seem to have all these different but closely related meanings. If you introduce me to someone saying, “I'd like you to meet my mother,” and I mistakenly conclude that she is the person who gave birth to you then I misunderstood you, but I did not misinterpret your words.3 The third objection is that the proposal isn't general enough. Even if intrinsically identical people must associate the same concepts with ‘mother,’ they could associate different ones with ‘water’ or with ‘arthritis.’ No concept associated with ‘water’ is employed in thinking about XYZ, and yet, someone intrinsically identical to me living on a planet where rivers and lakes are filled with XYZ could be thinking of XYZ using such a concept. Similarly, no concept associated with ‘arthritis’ is employed in thinking about inflammations in thighs, and yet, someone intrinsically identical to me living in a linguistic community whose members used ‘arthritis’ to talk about inflammations in thighs could be thinking about that using such a concept.4 There are answers to these objections. One can argue that the view is informative because it reduces linguistic meaning to mental content, that polysemous words are just special homonyms, and that concepts have narrow contents. Alternatively, one can articulate a different version of meaning internalism that bypasses these concerns. This is what Paul Pietroski has done in Conjoining Meanings. The meanings of natural language expressions, we are told, are not the concepts assembled in interpreting them but instructions for the assemblage (19). The meaning of ‘mothers’, for example, is the instruction to fetch a monadic concept associated with the noun ‘mother’, fetch another associated with the plural morpheme ‘-s’, and then conjoin the two. Instructions get more intricate as we consider more complicated expressions, but all linguistic interpretation is a mechanical process of fetch, join, and repeat (106)—building complex concepts from simple ones. What, if anything, these concepts apply to in the external world matters to cognition but makes no difference to semantics. A meaning, on this view, is not a representation. It does not have meaning or content, and hence, is not subject to interpretation. This immediately disarms the first objection. In telling what sort of instruction a given meaning is, we are saying everything that needs to be said about what it is—no passing of the buck to a future theory of intentionality. The second objection is also moot. Lexical meanings are instructions to fetch a concept meeting some constraint from a mental address. Nothing rules out that there are multiple concepts meeting the constraint there. If so, linguistic interpretation will not have a determinate outcome and we must rely on pragmatic mechanisms to figure out what was intended. Finally, there is nothing in this view of linguistic meaning that is incompatible with externalism about mental content. The meaning of ‘water’ (or ‘arthritis’) is an instruction to fetch an appropriate concept from a mental address—the same instruction in the minds of all who understand it. What concepts are stored at the address may depend on facts about the physical and social environment. Externalists think being meaningful is being related in a certain way to something external. Internalists who identify meanings with concepts hold on to this relational view—they simply replace the external thing with an internal representation. On Pietroski's view, being meaningful is an intrinsic feature. But the view goes even further: “If meanings are concept assembly instructions, Slang expressions [Pietroski's term for expressions of natural languages] can be these meanings/instructions. […] This does not imply that every feature of a Slang expression is relevant to an encoded meaning. On the contrary, a generable expression can also be a phonological instruction […] generable expressions can be partially described in various ways: as pronounceable meanings; as meaningful pronunciations; or as syntactic structures that are meaningful and pronounceable.” (292-3) We might conjecture that the significance of combining a word with a relative clause is fixed by the innate endowment children use to acquire language. Then it is a law of natural language that given what ‘that we saw yesterday’ and ‘a cow’ mean ‘a cow that we saw yesterday’ must mean what it does. So far so good. But the modality here is restricted—there is no reason to deny that we could invent a language where ‘that we saw yesterday’ and ‘a cow’ mean just what they do in English, and yet, ‘a cow that we saw yesterday’ means something entirely different.5 If sentences are their meanings then they could not mean anything other than what they actually mean, and hence, the perfectly sensible question, “Why does (1) have the meaning of (1a), rather than that of (1b) or (1c)?” would be much like the absurd question, “Why is water H2O, rather than H3O or HO2?” Pietroski can hold on to all that is attractive in his meaning internalism without opting for the Chomsky-inspired view that natural languages generate pronounceable meanings. They generate words, phrases, and clauses—things that have meanings and pronunciations intrinsically. But they do so contingently. How can we go about deciding whether meanings are mental instructions or what is represented by the outputs of such instructions? The colloquial meaning of ‘meaning’ would be a poor guide. The claim that meanings are instructions in the mind sounds like a category mistake, but so does the claim that they are things in the external world. To paraphrase Bishop Butler, meaning is what it is, not another thing. Or, anyway, so it seems when we rely too heavily on what sounds felicitous in everyday conversation. The question is what we should call meaning when we try to develop a theory of meaning. This depends, in part, on where we think the most fruitful questions in this area lie. Those who think we are very much in the dark when it comes to investigating the psychological mechanism of linguistic interpretation will be drawn to externalist, referential semantics. Such theories explain how we could, in principle, understand natural languages without making a commitment that the compositional rules they identify are the ones we actually follow. Those who decry making ontological claims based on linguistic evidence will find internalist, instruction-based semantics appealing. These theories purport to give the exact mechanism at work in the interpretation of natural language but set aside the question how to understand people who use language to say various things that can be evaluated as true or false. Partisans in this debate often justify their choices in stark terms. David Lewis, for example, expresses doubts that we can make objective sense of the claim that a given language has a particular grammar. He argues that people speak a language L in virtue of belonging to a community where a convention of truthfulness and trust in L holds, but such a convention cannot pin down how the sentences of L are generated from their parts. He does not discard the notion of meaning for subsentential expressions of L (“that would be absurd,” he says), but he thinks this notion is “no clearer and no more objective than our notion of a best grammar” for L.6 Lewis's reasons for skepticism about grammar are highly speculative. Like Quine and Davidson, he thinks all evidence in favor of interpreting a language must be manifestable in behavior, and that the only relevant form of behavior is acceptance of a sentence as true. Neither of these assumptions is forced upon us. Noam Chomsky, on the other side of the debate, is even more forceful. He thinks the technical terms ‘reference’, ‘extension’, ‘denotation’, etc. have been introduced to provide a semblance of respectability for our inherently messy ideas about intentionality. He thinks, “A word, even of the simplest kind, does not pick out an entity of the world,” but also that this fact should not be seen as a denial that “there are banks, or that we are talking about something (or even some thing) if we discuss the fate of the Earth (or the Earth's fate) and conclude that it is grim.”7 Chomsky's reasons for skepticism about reference are also highly speculative. Like Putnam and Burge, he thinks what we use our words to talk about depends on norms—in particular, norms of who we should defer to— and that there is no credible way to fit the study of these norms into a naturalistic inquiry. Depending on how one understands what counts as naturalistic inquiry, one can either insist that theories of reference can be naturalistic, or deny that their non-naturalism is a blemish. Pietroski is clearly sympathetic to the Chomskian hard line: he suspects typical concepts (and a fortiori, typical expressions of natural languages) don't have extensions (9). But what he tries to show in Conjoining Meaning is something different: that even if expressions of natural languages have extensions, those extensions play no significant role in a theory of meaning. He has two main arguments for this, one based on semantic paradoxes developed in Chapter 4, and another based on event semantics presented in Chapter 5. Here I'll focus on the second. Davidson has argued that action sentences existentially quantify over events. For example, ‘Jones buttered the toast in the bathroom at midnight’ says that for some event e, e is a buttering of the toast by Jones, and e occurred in the bathroom, and e occurred at midnight, which is why the sentence entails both ‘Jones buttered the toast in the bathroom’ and ‘Jones buttered the toast at midnight’ and fails to be entailed by their conjunction.8 Subsequent work has deepened the empirical case for event semantics.9 The first premise of Pietroski's argument is that Davidsonian semantics is on the right track. And yet, it would be ludicrous to claim that when Simon is playing the song on his tuba he is doing two different things. This is the second premise. Pietroski thinks the best way to reconcile the two premises is to give up the assumption that (2), (3), or (4) have truth-conditions. They can, of course, be used to make true claims, but that is not because any of the thoughts one can build following the instructions that constitute their meanings are true. Those thoughts are all false—the things they existentially quantify over are simply not there. Talk of musical performances is “like talk of lovely sunrises, blue skies, and other ‘things’ we talk about without using words that are true of them.” (199) Well, that's one way to go. For my part, I would be more inclined to reject the second premise than to accept this conclusion. On reflection, we can find a clear modal difference between Simon's playing the song and his playing his tuba. Imagine a counterfactual possibility where the song has never been written. Simon is playing his tuba in exactly the same way but he is not following a score—he is just improvising. Then (2) would be false but (3) would still be true. This probably won't move Pietroski. He agrees that there are apparent differences between Simon's playing the song and his playing the tuba: we might want to say, for example, that the former reaches its culmination after three minutes, while the latter simply ends then. But this sort of difference, he insists, is not in the events themselves but in the way we represent them (219). My question is: so what? What is wrong with saying that Simon's playing the song is not a bare event but an event represented in a certain way—as a playing of the song by Simon? This is the sort of view Barry Schein holds.10 Pietroski briefly discusses the proposal but rejects it because he thinks it gives up the rationale for referential semantics: we are no longer in the business of relating linguistic expressions to items in the objective, mind-independent world (207). But this job-description is tendentious: referential semantics seeks to relate expressions to things they are about (in a rather broad de re sense of aboutness, modeled with the technical notion of reference) whether or not these things are representation-dependent. Natural language sentences often quantify over representation-dependent things: when Lucy imagines a unicorn she imagines something, as does Franz when he fears everything Lucy imagines. The novelty in Schein's proposal is the idea that we might be doing this all the time, not just when we employ overtly intentional vocabulary. All of us (except for the idealists) agree that there are objective, real word events, independent of our thinking about them that can be described using natural language. How does this happen? One hypothesis is that sentences of natural languages encode instructions to build thoughts which describe nothing in the real world, but there are other thoughts in the neighborhood which do describe objective events. We pick out one of these thoughts relying on context and background information. Another hypothesis is that sentences of natural languages encode instructions we use to build thoughts which describe events as being represented in a certain way. There are also other thoughts in their neighborhood which describe the same events more objectively, in ways less tied to the character of natural languages. We design artificial languages whose sentences can do this job. Pietroski opts for the first one—I think the second is at least as plausible. I think the most original part of Conjoining Meanings is the semantics sketched in Chapters 6 and 7. It is an internalist theory, but its main ideas could be adopted by externalists as well. Many semanticists nowadays are working within a framework whose basic tenets go back to Frege. They include (i) that every expression belongs to a semantic type which determines what kind of meaning it has, (ii) that semantic types are generated recursively from basic types 𝑒 (for expressions denoting entities) and 𝑡 (for expressions that have truth-values), and (iii) that the interpretation of syntactic composition is functional application. Each of these initial assumptions can be relaxed—semantic theories often allow type shifting as well as additional basic types or composition rules beside functional application—but departures from the bare-bones account must always be justified and kept at a minimum. This sort of theory raises some uncomfortable questions. Why do expressions of natural languages belong to only a handful of semantic types? It is glaring that even some of the simplest types—like 〈𝑒, 𝑒〉 or 〈𝑡, 𝑒〉—are apparently uninhabited. Why do semantic types look so gerrymandered from the point of view of syntax? Despite their vast differences, most nouns, verbs, and adjectives are standardly ascribed the same semantic type—〈𝑒, 𝑡〉; despite their massive similarities, proper and common nouns are standardly ascribed different semantic types—𝑒 and 〈𝑒, 𝑡〉, respectively. Why are pro-forms not available more freely across semantic types? They tend to be of type 𝑒 (‘she’, ‘this’), or type 〈𝑒, 𝑡〉 (‘so’, ‘how’), but never in otherwise well-inhabited types like 〈𝑒, 〈𝑒, 𝑡〉〉 or 〈〈𝑒, 𝑡〉, 𝑡〉. Pietroski suggests that we should radically flatten the semantic type hierarchy. In his view, all natural language expressions are predicates. All complex expressions as well as most of the simple ones are one-place. The exceptions (which are all functional items) are two-place. He argues that proper nouns are predicates, that sentences are predicates applying to everything or nothing, that transitive verbs are two-verb constructions (and so verbs can all be one-place), and that nouns without their count/mass, singular/plural features are number neutral (i.e. can apply to one, many, or much). The outline covers roughly the same empirical ground as standard semantics textbooks do, showing the viability of the proposal. I am very much on board with this project and I find a lot of the details congenial. But I'd like to mention one area where I prefer to go in a different direction. On Pietroski's account, quantificational determiners fetch concepts that apply (non-distributively) to ordered pairs—e.g., ALL/SOME/MOST applies to some ordered pairs iff all/some/most of their second components are one of their first components (330). The interpretation works but it feels farfetched and parochial. Farfetched, because it seems unlikely that everyone who understands ‘all’, ‘some’ or ‘most’ must have the capacity to think about ordered pairs. Parochial, because it is hard to see how it can be generalized to cover the interpretation of the intuitively quite similar (but focus-sensitive) ‘always’, ‘sometimes’, and ‘often.’ Other concepts Pietroski had to posit to get his semantics rolling can all be plausibly attributed to competent If you understand you have a concept that applies to if you understand you have a concept of that applies to of if you understand a you have a concept that applies to those who see a and if you understand you have a concept that applies to most of the But what sort of concept do you have to have if you understand There is nothing natural to say, so Pietroski ends up saying something I think to reject the is a functional and functional items are not associated with at least not if concepts are to be mental used to about things in certain They are not associated with but rather with ways we can build complex from ones. Pietroski's framework the natural thing to say would be that their meanings are not instructions to fetch a but instructions to There are items in Pietroski's functional items would not the basic It would be a to have to accept a (but number of of just the handful the version But to artificial concepts seems the
The present study investigates some condoling comments given by Egyptian and English- speaking users of Facebook, examining the effect of culture on the way people give condolences to one another. Using participant observation, 200 (100 Egyptian Arabic and 100 English) naturally occurring condolence speech acts are collected from Facebook obituary status updates. The study seeks to investigate the frequently used semantic strategies, syntactic, and lexical aspects that distinguish Egyptian and English condoling comments on Facebook. Furthermore, other aspects that differentiate between Egyptian Arabic (EA) and English condoling comments on Facebook are examined. The results also shed light on how cultural norms and politeness might affect the way Egyptians and English- speaking users of Facebook give condolences. New categories are added to the previous models to create a semantic classification that fits and covers the data of the study. In order to address the objectives of the study, quantitative as well as qualitative analyses are carried out. Results of the study proved that Egyptians condole each other using religious consolations, whereas English speakers use direct and apologetic condolences. The study highlights the great effect of the Islamic culture on Egyptians. Finally, the study concludes that using different politeness strategies to accomplish face wants and avoid face threats when giving condolences differ from one culture to another.
In this chapter linguistic variations are examined by focusing on the different dimensions that influence them, including the communicative situation, the interlocutor, and the linguistic repertoire. Variations are discussed within the new theoretical perspective that considers language as a social action and social factors as part of language functioning. The diachronic and synchronic lexical change is explored and the development of a linguistic norm for sign language together with a consideration of the role of sociolinguistic factors in the shaping of metalinguistic reflection are discussed. Finally, euphemisms and taboo in LIS are explored as an area that shows how usage interacts with pragmatic and social norms.
From the point of view of studying the centuries-old history of the Turkish language, these language monuments created by Turkish poets and writers in the Middle Ages are important sources. The study of these monuments written in the Turkish language, and the study of their phonetic, lexical, and grammatical features also create conditions for determining the literary norms of the Turkic languages. From this point of view, the analysis of the vocabulary of “Jamshid and Khurshid”, a Turkish language written monument of the 14th-15th centuries, is both important and interesting from the point of view of studying the existence of Turkic words.In this article, the lexicon of Turkic origin has been studied in the language of Ahmadi’s masnavi “Jamshid and Khurshid”, the words of Turkic origin involved in the research have been compared with their usage forms in modern Turkic languages. As a result of the research, it has been found out that there are enough words of Turkic origin among the nouns, verbs, and numeral words used in the language of the monument. However, in the lexicon of “Jamshid and Khurshid” verbs occupy a greater place among the words of Turkic origin. In the lexicon of the 14th-15th century written monument “Jamshid and Khurshid”, carrying the linguistic features of Anatolian Oghuz Turkic, some of the words of Turkic origin have been preserved with minor phonetic changes, and some have been preserved their functionality as they are in modern Turkic languages.
It is known that oral speech is nowadays the most dynamic and variable segment of the language system. The incessant changes in accent norms and their dynamics largely determine the relevance of this study. The preference issues of both the choice of the accent pattern in a particular word and the use of certain lexical units in speech by the modern youth are also relevant. This article addresses the issues of accentuation in a number of nouns that have accentuation variants. The purpose of the work is to describe accentuation in the lexemes under consideration according to modern orthoepic dictionaries, correlate the obtained results with the data of previously published orthoepic dictionaries, and also reveal preferences in accentuation in these lexemes among Russian students of two technical universities in Ivanovo - Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology and Ivanovo State Polytechnic University. An attempt to establish appropriate correlations between normative and conventional implementations of accent models of the specified group of lexical units was made. Basing on the study, the authors conclude that there was no single variant of stress in the control group of lexemes. It was found that, despite the possible variation provided by lexicographic orthoepic sources, modern students prefer to use only one variant of word stress in oral speech. Thus, a significant divergence was revealed between normative and conventional realizations of accent patterns of nouns.
In the article the content and specifics of students’ work with Ukrainian historical dictionaries in the context of the educational paradigm of future lecturers of the Ukrainian language are clarified. This topic is covered in the context of the analysis of educational and professional programs developed and implemented in the educational process by the lecturers of the Department of Ukrainian Philology of Khmelnytsky National University. The presentation of theoretical positions in diachronic linguistics should be based on illustrative material of historical dictionaries of the Ukrainian language, which should be presented with the help of computer technology available to all participants in the educational process. It is necessary to involve both vocabulary material of academic lexicography and the latest developments of linguists. To acquire lexicographic skills, students solve cognitive, training, creative research tasks on the origin of words, development of lexical meaning of language units, foreign language parallels for borrowed tokens, grammatical characteristics of nouns, phonetic, graphic, spelling variability of words, chronology of their functioning, norms of the modern Ukrainian language, etc. It is expedient to carry out a comparative analysis of lexicographical publications of historical and linguistic courses, paying attention to the peculiarities of the description of language material, selection of source base, construction of dictionary articles, etc. When performing lexical, etymological, grammatical, stylistic exercises, future lecturers are aware of the need to refer to the dictionary. Skills in managing the acquired lexicographic knowledge are necessary to prepare students for research activities. Students perform creative and exploratory tasks that allow them to recognize, systematize, analyze, compare various phenomena and facts reflected in lexicographic sources, comment and evaluate them according to the topic and purpose of the study. Important factors in improving the effectiveness of such activities may be the participation of students in scientific problem groups, circles, participation in scientific conferences, preparation and publication of scientific articles, etc. We consider the creation of electronic dictionaries of various directions to be a promising direction of modern and historical lexicography.
In this paper, the realization of fundamental functions of legal contracts is studied. To this purpose, the macrostructure of the contract (Gläser 1990) is analyzed, and the text part segments that occur in contracts are mapped and described, focusing on the speech acts that are being performed. The corpus of the survey consists of 23 German tenancy contracts, of which some form part of the mapping and some are selected for further exemplary analysis. Genre analysis is the point of departure of this study to look further into the functional element, using the notions of macrostructure and speech acts. A contract text fundamentally realizes two overall functions; firstly, it creates a legal relationship between the contract parties, and secondly, it establishes the rights and obligations of the two parties. Realizations of the latter function by far takes up the greatest part of the contract text, and the contract often provides answers to a lot of questions about what the parties can, must and must not do, as the norms of the contract process itself are established. The contract texts, used in practice, are usually very extensive when it comes to legal provisions, but in fact only very few text part segments are obligatory and genre constitutive, while most of the text part segments are optional. The investigation seeks to categorize the text part segments and show their individual contribution to the fulfillment of the overall functional complex of the contract. More precisely, the paper seeks to investigate which text part segments are obligatory and which are optional, which lexical features are characteristic in each of the text part segments as well as to what extent variations occur.
The culture of communication in social life is determined by the linguistic and cultural traditions, the peculiarities of the value system of a nation. The present paper focuses on the study of the accepted norms and rulesof politeness in the Arab-Islamic society, which are greatly influenced by religion. The norms reflected in centuries-long experience and philosophy of the Arab people are expressed through a number of lexical, grammatical and syntactic means.
In the article the content and specifics of students’ work with Ukrainian historical dictionaries in the context of the educational paradigm of future lecturers of the Ukrainian language are clarified. This topic is covered in the context of the analysis of educational and professional programs developed and implemented in the educational process by the lecturers of the Department of Ukrainian Philology of Khmelnytsky National University. The presentation of theoretical positions in diachronic linguistics should be based on illustrative material of historical dictionaries of the Ukrainian language, which should be presented with the help of computer technology available to all participants in the educational process. It is necessary to involve both vocabulary material of academic lexicography and the latest developments of linguists. To acquire lexicographic skills, students solve cognitive, training, creative research tasks on the origin of words, development of lexical meaning of language units, foreign language parallels for borrowed tokens, grammatical characteristics of nouns, phonetic, graphic, spelling variability of words, chronology of their functioning, norms of the modern Ukrainian language, etc. It is expedient to carry out a comparative analysis of lexicographical publications of historical and linguistic courses, paying attention to the peculiarities of the description of language material, selection of source base, construction of dictionary articles, etc. When performing lexical, etymological, grammatical, stylistic exercises, future lecturers are aware of the need to refer to the dictionary. Skills in managing the acquired lexicographic knowledge are necessary to prepare students for research activities. Students perform creative and exploratory tasks that allow them to recognize, systematize, analyze, compare various phenomena and facts reflected in lexicographic sources, comment and evaluate them according to the topic and purpose of the study. Important factors in improving the effectiveness of such activities may be the participation of students in scientific problem groups, circles, participation in scientific conferences, preparation and publication of scientific articles, etc. We consider the creation of electronic dictionaries of various directions to be a promising direction of modern and historical lexicography.
With the development of technology and information, language has changed as well. It is no longer important to follow the literary norm. It is important to be able to communicate effectively and to remove communication barriers. Russian students studying in China or Chinese students studying in Russia use slang or fancy words in the intercultural conununication. Russian youth slang as a specific linguistic phenomenon has attracted an increasing number of researchers. Among them are scientists, undergraduates and graduate students, as well as teachers of the Russian language. People are interested in this linguistic phenomenon because of its specificity and linguistic fashion for slang lexical units. When analyzing a foreign language (e.g., Russian), native speakers of Chinese use the same or similar linguistic phenomena for a comparative analysis. This article aims to compare lexical units of modern Russian youth slang with Chinese ones. The article concludes that language fashion exists in both language systems.
The article explores the contribution of Nelly Lukozheva to the development of the genre in the Adyghe children’s dramatic tale. Until now, in Adyghe literary criticism, there is no research work on modern children’s literature, and many genres of Adyghe children’s literature and drama are still poorly studied. The appeal of the playwright-librettist Nelly Lukozheva to folklore mo-tives in globalization problems should be considered as a certain trend that has recently been not-ed in domestic multinational literature. Currently, the genre of literary fairy tale in the Kabardino-Circassian language occupies an important place in modern Adyghe literature. The world of the author’s artistic fairy tales reflects the life philosophy of the author and the moral and ethical norms and laws of society and the state, transmitted through symbols, signs, metaphors and vari-ous sentiments. The play-fairy tale “Starstone” by Nelly Lukozheva provides a relevant subject of research, because the author turns his close attention to the cultural, ethnic, lexical and social functions of fairy tales. Therefore, the emergence of recent works of drama makes it possible to touch the spiritual culture of the Adyghe people. Dramatic works as fairy tale plays are of special scientific interest both in theoretical terms and in studying the forms and features of the existence of folklore. The proposed article also draws attention to the presence in the fairy tale play of Nelly Lukozheva of ethnic information at the level of themes, ideas, style and some specific aspects, reveals artistic conflict and gives images of the heroes characteristics in her fairy tale play “Star-stone.”
The current study intends to recognize the various sorts of interference in French in Ivory Coast, a West African nation. The current article mainly concentrates on a propound examination and investigation of the linguistic procedure that demonstrates itself in the survey in the impression of Ivorian native tongues and a complicated range of elements and factors. This study focuses on the impacts of grammatical, phonetic, and lexical interference, occurring to various levels on basilect and mesolect French variants and are not in line with the French speech norms in France. The methodology is on the basis of investigating the cases of grammatical, phonetic, and lexical interference, revealing the particular characteristics of Ivorian French. Based on the analysis, lexical interference tends to be clear in alterations in the meaning of the original lexeme and the words borrowing from Ivorian tongues, exposing cultural realities. Based on that, grammatical and phonetic interference is greatly pronounced in the tongue of basilect-dominant talkers.
In Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Harriet Jacobs ([1861] 2001) submits a zoology of the Southern US plantation and its environs. As a recent fugitive, Linda Brent (Jacobs's pseudonym) hides from her pursuers behind bushes, where she is injured by “a reptile of some kind,” “something cold and slimy” (83). Days later, she and family friend Peter must wait in “Snake Swamp”; “hundreds of mosquitos... [poison their] flesh” as “snake after snake” crawls at their feet (94–95). “But,” she insists, “even those large, venomous snakes were less dreadful to my imagination than the white men in that community called civilized” (95). For seven years, she shares an attic's crawl space with “rats and mice” as well as “hundreds of little red insects, fine as a needle's point, that [pierce] through [her] skin, and [produce] an intolerable burning” (95, 97). Even after she reaches New York, Linda fears being recognized by the Southerners “swarming” the city: “Hot weather brings out snakes and slaveholders, and I like one class of venomous creatures as little as I do the other” (143).Jacobs animalizes the slaveholder, classifying him as the most dangerous, and most evil, of “venomous creatures.” In predicating a Black woman's freedom in the antebellum era on a negotiated proximity to some threatening creatures and not others, Jacobs shuffles the Enlightenment logic whereby “white men” secure their place “in that community called civilized” by exempting themselves from an animality they instead ascribe to Black and Indigenous people. I say shuffles because Jacobs does not collapse the human–animal hierarchy; she revises membership in each category by hinting at a notion of white animality. Jacobs's animalization of whiteness constitutes one rhetorical strategy—her condemnation of white Southerners’ failure to live up to Christian values being another—meant to bring Black humanity into sharp relief. If Jacobs maintains the human's primacy and integrity, it is because her abolitionist project is embedded in a sentimental tradition. Within this tradition, readers, such as the white, Northern, Christian women whom Jacobs explicitly addresses, are invited to express sympathy toward the enslaved—to recognize, that is, their humanity.Jacobs interferes with the legal and discursive management of Blackness's relation to nature undergirding the animalization and propertization of Black people.1 What would such interference look like if it did not happen in the name of Black humanity, either because Black animality and humanity were more symbiotic than they appeared or because being granted humanity within a white supremacist regime were simply not desirable? Recent monographs by Sarah Jane Cervenak, Andil Gosine, and Zakiyyah Iman Jackson take up this question.The critique of humanization in the fields dedicated to race and sexuality has generally adopted, as its unit of analysis, sentiment, emotion, affect, or feeling. Breakthrough studies have inquired into a recognition of Black humanity that “[holds] out the promise not of liberating the flesh or redeeming one's suffering but rather intensifying it” (Hartman 1997: 5); the “culture of true feeling” that tends to “elevate the ethic of personal sacrifice, suffering, and mourning over a politically ‘interested’ will to socially transformative action” (Berlant 2008: 35, 55); the consolidation of nineteenth-century biopower as “a sentimental mode that regulated the circulation of feeling throughout the population and delineated differential relational capacities of matter” (Schuller 2018: 7); and minoritarian practices of “unfeeling” that “signal skepticism and reluctance to signify the appropriate expressions of affect that are socially legible as human” (Yao 2021: 7). The contested terrain demarcated by Cervenak's, Gosine's, and Jackson's studies is not so much that of feeling as that of nature—specifically, the perceived and enforced contiguity to or alienation from nature of Black people and people deemed sexually deviant, two categories that overlap in the archive of coloniality.2 I read these three books, together, as marking an ecological turn in the radical critique of humanization. Their authors enter the natural world to reencounter humanization as a process of enclosure rather than liberation, and to find fugitive ontologies and epistemologies in the shadow of the human.The scholarship pairing Blackness and ecology in US and hemispheric contexts has proceeded along two main axes. The first concerns environmental racism, a significant configuration of environmental inequality. Dorceta E. Taylor (2014), for instance, models an environmental justice scholarship attuned to the disproportionate exposure of Black communities, communities of color, and low-income communities to environmental hazards like pollution. In the twenty-first century, such events as Hurricane Katrina (Hosbey 2018), the Flint water crisis (Pulido 2016), and the COVID-19 pandemic (Njoku 2021) have stressed the indissociability of anti-Blackness from the bio- and necropolitics of displacement, privatization, and infection.3 The second axis tells something of an origin story about the transformations that have fossilized into the industrial, then late-industrial, landscape of environmental racism. This story's framework, the “Plantationocene,” makes a prefixal adjustment to the now ubiquitous “Anthropocene,” which inscribes the present in an era when human activity amounts to a geological force.4 “The plantation,” Wendy Wolford (2021: 1623) explains, “has propelled colonial exploration, sustained an elite, perpetuated a core–periphery dualism within and between countries, organized a highly racialized labor force worldwide, and shaped both the cultures we consume and the cultural norms we inhabit and perform.” In trading the undifferentiated and unsituated position of anthropos—the human—for the plantation as birth site of a certain world order and a certain relation to the earth, Wolford and other researchers of the Plantationocene echo the insight, conveyed by Saidiya Hartman (2006), Jared Sexton (2018), Christina Sharpe (2016), and other Black studies scholars, that the Middle Passage represented nothing less than an epochal rupture.While traces of the above inquiries, including an attention to the uneven geographies of harm and the ecological disruption of colonialism and capitalism, can be found in their books, Cervenak, Gosine, and Jackson bring distinct methods and commitments to the study of Black ecologies. Several investigations of environmental racism and the Plantationocene have taken place under the umbrella of anthropology, sociology, geography, or public health. By contrast, Cervenak, Gosine, and Jackson favor an approach not social-scientific but philosophical and aesthetic. They risk bold, overarching claims about the dominant rationality of scientific and political modernity, positing as some of its tenets the alignment of “anti-Black and anti-earth” material and discursive practices, in Cervenak's (6) case, and the traffic between Black and Indigenous humanity and animality, in Jackson's and Gosine's. Moreover, all three authors zoom in on the ways Black visual, literary, and performed arts mediate this dominant rationality. They occupy the aesthetic as a register that exacerbates the contradictions animating anti-Black norms and laws, inasmuch as the colonial common sense that would otherwise stabilize the meaning of race, sex, nature, and property—all criteria for what counts as humanity and who counts as human—is upended.Of the three volumes foregrounded here, Jackson's Becoming Human: Matter and Meaning in an Antiblack World is philosophically the most ambitious. A mere two years out of the printer as of my writing this, Becoming Human has already secured a canonical status. Excerpts from the book previously published in article form are cited abundantly and favorably in Cervenak's Black Gathering: Art, Ecology, Ungiven Life (65–66) and Gosine's Nature's Wild: Love, Sex, and Law in the Caribbean (10). Becoming Human builds on the premise that Black animality is not, nor was it ever, antithetical to Black humanity. Accordingly, Jackson “[reinterprets] Enlightenment thought not as black ‘exclusion’ or ‘denied humanity’ but rather as the violent imposition and appropriation—inclusion and recognition—of black(ened) humanity in the interest of plasticizing that very humanity, whereby ‘the animal’ is one but not the only form blackness is thought to encompass” (3). Humanization, then, shapes the matter and meaning of Blackness in ways that may concur with animalization.5In a chapter on, among other things, Toni Morrison's 1987 novel Beloved (also discussed in Cervenak's Black Gathering), Jackson reckons with the “aporia” of “[slave] humanity” (45). Her assertion that humanization was “not an antidote to slavery's violence” but “a technology for producing a kind of human” (46) recalls Monique Allewaert's report on the advent of alternative humanities on the plantation.6 Yet, Jackson does not rely on a typology, like Allewaert's (2013: 85, 6), that distinguishes between the human, the animal, the object, the plant, and “the parahuman,” the latter category designating “the slave and maroon persons who seventeenth- through nineteenth-century Anglo-European colonists typically proposed were not legally or conceptually equivalent to human beings while at the same time not being precisely inhuman.” The absence from Jackson's book of such a historically informed typology is, I believe, worth noting. Whereas Allewaert's case studies revolve around documents from the seventeenth- to nineteenth-century American tropics, Jackson's, in majority though not in totality, revolve around contemporary African diasporic cultural production. That Becoming Human exceeds historicism in the strict sense does not mean that Jackson's claims are a- or transhistorical; they may be best labeled, like those of Plantationocene scholars, epochal.Jackson's equation between recognizing and plasticizing Black humanity is indicative of a broad, cross-disciplinary curiosity about plasticity, “the capacity of a given body or system to generate new form, whether internally or through external intervention” (Schuller and Gill-Peterson 2020: 1). Scholars in trans, queer, Black, and race and ethnic studies have exposed plasticity's operation as “a key logic underpinning the modern notion of racial difference” and “an enlisted feature of state power” (Schuller and Gill-Peterson 2020: 2). Per Jackson's nomenclature, plasticity names “a mode of transmogrification whereby the fleshy being of blackness is experimented with as if it were infinitely malleable lexical and biological matter, such that blackness is produced as sub/super/human at once, a form where form shall not hold: potentially ‘everything and nothing’ at the level of ontology” (3). By this scheme, categories of race and sex owe their “world-wrecking capacities and death-dealing effects” to the modulation of the flesh's mobility and vitality (121). Against Kyla Schuller (2018), who argues that, within nineteenth-century biopolitics, Black people appeared inert, undifferentiated, and unoptimized, thus marking the constitutive outside to binary sex differentiation as civilizational achievement, Jackson insists that “the fluidification of ‘life’ and fleshy existence” on sites like the plantation yielded hegemonic notions of “woman,” “mother,” and “female body” (11). It is from the vantage point of Blackness's fluidification qua bestialization or thingification that the literary and visual artifacts compiled in Becoming Human—from Audre Lorde's 1980 Cancer Journals to Octavia E. Butler's 1984 short story “Bloodchild,” to Wangechi Mutu's mid-2000s artworks—further Sylvia Wynter's (2003) project of rupturing the human.Gosine pursues an analogous objective in a volume that blends colonial history, art criticism, and anecdotes about his upbringing in a Trinidadian Catholic all-boys school (see esp. 1–3, 12–16, 103–4). To do so, Gosine tracks, first, the introduction, throughout the expansion of European colonization in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, of “legal statutes that set out ‘civil’ parameters of sex, including laws forbidding interracial and homosexual sex,” and, second, the disciplining of sexuality by postcolonial states since the retreat of European powers (4, 31). Gosine's search for traces of unruly bodies’ animalization takes him to the narratives alleging cannibalistic practices by Indigenous peoples and the artistic responses they have elicited. Gosine demonstrates a penchant for subversive art and art criticism; his book truly lives up to its titular wild.7 For instance, Guadeloupean artist Kelly Sinnapah Mary, whose paintings feature prominently in Nature's Wild and on its cover, refuses the onus of distancing colonized people from animals. Instead, she collapses that distance through representations of human–animal hybrids. Sinnapah Mary's art, as Gosine interprets it, trades the affirmation of Caribbean humanity and its associated “politics of respectability” for a concession and a rhetorical question: “We are animal; so what?” (129). I decipher nothing prescriptive in Gosine's verbalization of Sinnapah Mary's glorious nonchalance—no call, say, to cultivate a disidentificatory (Muñoz 1999) attachment to Caribbean hybridity. Something more pragmatic is on offer: the setup for a thought experiment that consists in imagining oneself “freed from proving [oneself] not animal” (150).Nature's Wild makes an important contribution to queer studies by decoding the sodomy legislation implemented in the British colonies in the context of “a general anxiety about the Pandora's box of competing norms and behaviors potentially opened by the Europeans’ metaphorical and literal penetration of ‘new worlds,’ which held threatening examples of alternative versions of how humans might live outside the patriarchal, hierarchical Christian model” (23). Criminal codes, Gosine explains, drew clear lines between acceptable and unacceptable sexual behavior and, by extension, between human and animal. While “animals have sex,... humans have sexual cultures,” he sums up, and cultures are prone to regulation (73). In many ways, Nature's Wild and Christopher Chitty's (2020) Sexual Hegemony: Statecraft, Sodomy, and Capital in the Rise of the World System function as companion pieces. They provide, as a pair, a remarkably far-reaching history of nonreproductive sex amid the rise and consolidation of the colonial and capitalist order.Becoming Human and Black Gathering, too, make convincing cases for sexuality studies as an intuitive home for the study of Black ecologies. They do so by extending a Black feminist theoretical and political lineage. When Jackson states that “antiblackness produces differential biocultural effects of both gender and sex” (9), for instance, we hear echo Hortense Spillers's (1987: 67, 66) claim that the “theft of the body” enacted in the Middle Passage and its legal and discursive ripple effect has frustrated the “symbolic integrity” of male and female, patriarchy and matriarchy. Whereas Jackson evaluates slavery's impact on the sex/gender system, Cervenak draws on a more utopian Black feminist tradition, one that summons “other ‘worlds’ engendered by the absence of weight and measure” (82).Black Gathering's utopianism bespeaks an investment, inherited from performance studies, in what artworks are as well as what they do. Cervenak Black not from the of animality but from that of the ways Black and have and a relation between and or that is not, and into (3). the book with an of the African American visual artist a of on which are and In Cervenak... into and out of as and from and their and as an (3). The a of Black freedom as to a that is not over to regulation and 7). Art, for Cervenak, a of it space for Black most distinguishes Black from Becoming Human and Nature's Wild is the external position its to the communities she As like from Cervenak is after an abolitionist with Black studies, one whose do not “the very and otherwise (11). 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Based on the data drawn from the Pioneer magazine of the 1970s and 1980s, the author sets the aim to design a discursive model of the woman in the Soviet children's press. The object of study is explored in terms of positive propaganda. Drawing on social constructionism, discourse analysis and multimodal analysis, it is argued that the model of the Soviet woman in the magazine for children was organised around the three parameters: professional activity, social engagement, and family and personal life. The representations of the woman reproduced the state policy aimed at her massive involvement in production and public life. Also, the woman was recognized as an organizing center of a family and a personality capable of being strong and resilient in the most difficult situations. The model was conveyed through various semiotic resources, including a set of genres (fiction and non-fiction) and personalities, pragmatic strategies, photos and illustrations. The author pinpoints the key strategies of representation: positive evaluation, precision, emotionalization, and ambivalent representation. They were actualized through lexical and grammatical resources, multimodal complexes, and the logic of narrative. The strategic usage of linguistic and multimodal means indicates that the representations of the Soviet woman in the magazine for children did not play a passive role justifying social expectations. Instead, they were employed to construct social norms and practices. Thus, the younger generation received axiologically charged representationsthat translated the model of the social structure and the role of the woman, reflected the modern realities and at the same time set the desired patterns of social practices in accordance with state policy for grown-ups.
About a fifth of all children in Sweden learn the societal language Swedish outside of the home, i.e., they have Swedish as a second language (L2). Many of these children have lower socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds, which predicts lower language proficiency. The aim of the present study is twofold: to contribute to a greater understanding of L2-Swedish proficiency in preschoolers with lower SES backgrounds, and to find out how proficiency tests should be adapted for bilingual children such that the tests are valid, i.e., unbiased to the language status (L1 or L2). We investigate test performance on a Swedish receptive language proficiency test (the Comprehension scale of The New Reynell Developmental Language Scales, NRDLS) which has a monolingual norming sample. The participants are 51 bilingual children (3-5-years of age) with Arabic as their L1, and who attend preschools in Swedish neighborhoods with lower SES. Results indicate that in contrast to the norming sample, bilingual children’s raw scores for subsections of the test are not progressively more difficult. Thus, we need to be aware that bilingual children’s high proficiency in a particular aspect of the language does not necessarily imply that they are proficient in aspects that would be considered easier from a monolingual perspective. In addition, there are indications that unfamiliarity with L2 lexical items, that are typically acquired early in L1, causes bilingual children to fail on tasks aimed at assessing syntactic skills, even though they appear to understand the syntactic pattern. We conclude with suggestions for special considerations and adaptations to assess individual L2-comprehension in preschoolers more accurately, such that practitioners in turn can support the children’s language development.
Philippine English (PhE) stands out from Outer Circle Postcolonial Englishes in having resulted from American, not British, colonialism. While almost all other World Englishes in the Outer Circle are products of a former status as colonies in the British Empire, the Philippines was an American colony between 1898 and 1946, and was anglicized remarkably quickly and efficiently. This chapter inquires into the exact nature of the relationship between PhE and American English (AmE). Legal texts on education and language policy mention “English” as a co-official language and as a possible medium of instruction in some subjects, but make no mention of AmE as an explicit norm or target. Lexical and grammatical variability has been subcategorized according to relevant parameters which have been suggested to vary between the two main varieties.
How words are associated within the linguistic environment conveys semantic content; however, different contexts induce different linguistic patterns. For instance, it is well known that adults speak differently to children than to other adults. We present results from a new word association study in which adult participants were instructed to produce either unconstrained or child-oriented responses to each cue, where cues included 672 nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other word forms from the McArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI; Fenson et al., 2006). Child-oriented responses consisted of higher frequency words with fewer letters, earlier ages of acquisition, and higher contextual diversity. Furthermore, the correlations among the responses generated for each pair of cues differed between unconstrained (adult-oriented) and child-oriented responses, suggesting that child-oriented associations imply different semantic structure. A comparison of growth models guided by a semantic network structure revealed that child-oriented associations are more predictive of early lexical growth. Additionally, relative to a growth model based on a corpus of naturalistic child-directed speech, the child-oriented associations explain added unique variance to lexical growth. Thus, these new child-oriented word association norms provide novel insight into the semantic context of young children and early lexical development.
Introduction. In recent decades the intensification of interpersonal interaction of bearers of different cultural and historical values and linguistic traditions leads to the intensification of the process of interpenetration of cultures. Teaching the norms of communicative behavior in a foreign language has become one of the priority methodological tasks. Of particular importance is the explication of communicative behavior norms in situations in which speech behavior of speakers may differ significantly in different cultures and, therefore, may be subject to strong intercultural interference. A striking example of such a communicative situation is the production of the speech act of asking. Materials and Methods. This paper presents the results of an experimental study conducted in groups of American students studying Russian at St. Petersburg State University, as well as in groups of Russian students studying at the S.O. Makarov State University of Marine Engineering. A total of 40 people took part in the study. The aim of the experiment was to determine the degree of influence of intercultural interference on the production of the speech act of request in Russian by American students. Using the questionnaire method, expressions verbalizing the speech act of request in different communicative contexts were collected. The data received from Russian and American students were compared and statistically processed, which allows to draw some conclusions about the degree of influence of negative pragmatic transfer on the production of Russian requests by English-speaking students. Results of the study. The study revealed that, although intercultural interference affects the production of requests in Russian communication by English-speaking students in a certain way, the key factor that influenced the non-normative use of language means was the students' lack of knowledge about the pragmatically significant language means used to increase or decrease the politeness of requests in Russian communication, and their functioning in different communicative contexts. It was this factor that entailed the use by American students of speech moves that had little correlation with the norms of both Russian and American communicative behavior. This, the vast majority of the expressions used by American students were formed with the constructions Можешь (можете) +infinitive, Можно +infinitive? (Could you \ Could I) as well as the imperative form of the verb (80%), which contradicts the norms of American communicative behavior that prescribe the use of negative politeness strategies when expressing requests in most communicative contexts. At the same time, Russian respondents used these constructions only in 40 % of the cases, varying the lexical means according to communicative context. Conclusion. The obtained results allow setting the methodological accents while planning the lesson plans, as well as creating the methodological aids in order to consider the communicative needs of foreign students to the fullest extent in order to overcome the possible intercultural interference.
The article is devoted to the study of the process of borrowing and adaptation of English loan words in the Ukrainian language. It is established that in the lexical system of the Ukrainian language foreign words make up about 10%, 70 – 80% of which are English loan words. The presence of a significant share of English loan words in the Ukrainian language is due to a number of extra- and intralinguistic factors: the development of economic, cultural and political ties; quantitative and qualitative complication of various spheres of language communication; diversity of norms of speech behavior; expansion of regulatory limits; achievements of English-speaking countries in certain fields of activity; striving for linguistic economy; the need to replenish the composition of expressive language means; the need to clarify and detail the concepts available in the language; «Americanization»; imitation of fashion. The study systematizes English loan words in the Ukrainian language and distributes them by spheres of use (sociopolitical, financial and economic, culture and art, technical, mass communication, sports, science, and education). Three stages in the process of adaptation of English loan words into the Ukrainian language are distinguished: 1) the initial stage, which is characterized by a change in the morpheme structure of English loan words; 2) in-depth, related to the selection of the same components in groups of English loan words based on the similarity of final elements and the development of new suffixes of English origin in the Ukrainian language; 3) the stage of full adaptation, which is characterized by participation of English loan words in the process of word formation through the mediation of Ukrainian language suffixes, the formation of new complex words based on English loan words and Ukrainian or previously borrowed words, as well as the consolidation of the spelling form of complex words. It is established that the inclusion of English loan words in the lexical structure of the Ukrainian language and their active use in oral and written speech leads to the formation of synonymous pairs containing proper Ukrainian counterparts.
The purpose of the study, the results of which are presented in the article, is to develop the optimal composition and method of presenting data in the developed corpus of Russian speech samples with errors made by foreign students. The development of such a corpus is conditioned, firstly, by the need for a scientific description of erroneous linguistic expressions, as all significant facts of the use of the language are currently being described, and secondly, by the need to create a unified database of systematized data on errors in the speech of Russian language learners for linguodidactic purposes. The creation of such a corpus requires an in-depth description of errors in speech, therefore, in this article, it is proposed to describe an erroneous linguistic expression as a violation of a certain language norm, a certain semantic, morphological, syntactic or lexical language model underlying the normatively correct expression, indicating the type of speech activity, speech situation, native language, specialty of the student. Within the framework of the task of creating a corpus, an error is understood as a failure at a certain level of speech generation, therefore, the model for describing errors is based on the model for describing language expressions developed by domestic researchers when creating an explanatory-combinatorial dictionary. The model of deep annotation of erroneous expressions proposed in the article includes schematized models of semantic representation, syntactic and lexical compatibility (depending on the nature of the error) of a linguistic expression, which is intended, on the one hand, to accurately localize the error in the use of the language, on the other hand, to serve as educational material in linguodidactics. It is concluded that when a statistically significant number of annotated samples with errors in Russian speech made by foreign students is reached, these corpora may well be used as a source of empirical data for a comprehensive scientific description of the facts of linguistic reality. It was also concluded that for the proposed corpus to be viable, it must be an open system that involves the inclusion of new description parameters in deep annotation.
The article is devoted to the study of the formation and development of the literary Karachay-Balkar language history over the past hundred years. An overview of its study is given, current problems of functioning are outlined, and prospects for further improvement are determined. A multi-aspect analysis of the studied language is conducted, considering the main, crucial publica-tions for the period under review. The fundamental projects “Explanatory dictionary of the Kara-chay-Balkarian language” and “Modern Karachay-Balkarian language” stand out as special achievements of Karachay-Balkarian linguistics. A new periodization of the development of the literary Karachay-Balkar language and its evolution into the status of the state language is pro-posed. Attention is drawn to the tasks considered for philologists to determine, at the junction of humanitarian disciplines, the specific contribution of the classics of the Balkar and Karachay lit-eratures to strengthen the norms of the language being studied. Attention is paid to the develop-ment of issues related to writing, alphabet, spelling and terminology. For the further successful functioning of the native language, it is necessary to improve the very practice of creating com-plex studies, its method, and the unification of lexical norms. The expediency of developing scien-tific principles for the selection of linguistic phenomena is indicated, considering regional charac-teristics. The perspective possibilities of expansion of functions provided by the official status of “literary language” in two constituent entities of the Russian Federation are substantiated: the Ka-bardino-Balkarian and Karachay-Cherkess republics.
The subject of the analysis is the adverbs «вполуха» and «вполглаза». The purpose of the study is to analyze the metaphorical model “bodily perception – social communication” based on the material of these adverbs. The theoretical basis is the work on the metaphorical potential of somatisms, on the source sphere of the “human body” for structuring a new area. Issues under consideration: metaphorical transition of quantitative and qualitative adverbs motivated by somatism from the sphere of perception to the sphere of social communication; interaction with the intensity/gradality and the communicative category “politeness” in the lexical and semantic structure of adverbs. The morphemic component “впол- (half)” is considered as a gradator. It is assumed that there is a social stereotype of communication – (a) the zero mark “do not look, do not listen” as evidence of the lack of communication and (b) the ordinary indicator “to look, to listen” as a common communicative norm. It is demonstrated on the speech material that adverbs converge in terms of intensity, forming a graduated binomial, which leads to a violation of semantic compatibility. The speech activity of adverbs with reference to the data of the National Corpus of the Russian language is considered. The main “semantic shades” (additional meanings) are revealed. It is concluded that the word вполуха is more often updated in the context of the evaluation of the parameter “politeness”. Lexical and syntactic means that mark the pejorative semantics of adverbs in the text are revealed. It is proved that the functioning in speech of adverbs вполуха and вполглаза demonstrates the interaction of the semantics of intensity and axiology (assessment on an ethical basis with the vector of pejorativeness).
The study of foreign languages in modern society becomes an integral part of the professional training of specialists of various fields of activity, and their further career growth may largely depend on the degree of their language training. Studying the Ukrainian language as a foreign one contributes to the development of communicative competence, forms the student’s ability to use it as means of communication. At the center of the educational process for foreign students should be activities aimed at developing knowledge and communication skills in the Ukrainian language in a professional context. Its purpose is the formation and improvement of communication skills and abilities of students studying the Ukrainian language, that is, the ability to communicate using a foreign language in various situations in the process of professional interaction with other communication participants. In the learning process, it is possible to take some tasks that ensure the formation and improvement of professional communication in a foreign language: actualization of knowledge of lexical units and grammatical rules; formation of the ability to choose and use adequate language norms depending on the purpose and situation of communication; improving the ability to understand different types of communicative situations, as well as to build coherent and logical utterances; development of abilities to choose verbal and non–verbal means in case of communication failure; expanding knowledge about the socio–cultural features of the representatives of the countries of the language being studied, their traditions and norms of language behavior, as well as the formation of the ability to understand and adequately use them in the process of communication, while keeping student’s own culture. It is necessary to emphasize the special relevance of business communication in the orientation of preparation for personal and professional development of the student. At the same time, language information is the most reliable and perfect social means of communication and information acquisition, which serves as an exchange of thoughts and feelings and at the same time expresses the meaning of social relations. Therefore, the motivation of communicative orientation is one of the most important means of increasing the effectiveness of students’ foreign language learning. Key words: speech activity, dialogue, monologue, communicative approach, communicative task, initiating replica, replica–reaction.
من دروس علم الأصوات الوظيفي (التناوب الحرکي وألوانه الشکلية في کتاب المُطْلِع على أبواب الفقه) (لأبي الفَتْح البَعْلِيّ المتوفى 709هـ) محمد عبد الحميد حويزي مدرس أصول اللغة في کلية اللغة العربية بإيتاي البارود جامعة الأزهر. ملخص البحث/ هذا البحث يتعرض لدرس من دروس علم الأصوات الوظيفي، ألا وهو التناوب بين الحرکات القصيرة في کتاب المطلع على أبواب الفقه، ليبين من خلاله مدى خصوصية هذه الحرکات وصعوبة مسلکها ومدى أهميتها في بناء الصيغ وتنوعها، ويعزز ـ من خلال صهر مواده في بوتقة المناهج اللغوية الحديثة ـ التفاعل بين الماضي والحاضر؛ رجاء العثور على إنجازات باهرة في مجال البحث اللغوي. وقد قضت طبيعة دراسته أن يخرج في مقدمة، وتمهيد، وثلاثة مباحث، وخاتمة، وفهارس. أما المقدمة ففيها عرض موجز للإطار المنهجي للبحث، وأما المباحث فالأول منها: التناوب بين الحرکات المرققة، والثاني: التناوب مع الحرکات المتوسطة، والثالث: التناوب مع الحرکات المفخمة. تليها الخاتمة، ثم الفهارس. وکان من أبرز نتائج هذا البحث: أن اللغة تنعم بانسجام صوائتها القصيرة تبعا للأعراف المنظمة لقواعد الذوق الاستعمالي لدى العرب، والتي من أهمها تأثر الأصوات ببعضها؛ إحداثا للانسجام، وتيسيرا لعملية النطق، واقتصادا في المجهود العضلي، وفي هذا إظهار للدور الکبير التي يؤديه هذا التناوب مع الأصوات ثقيلها وخفيفها. أن ابن جني کان أول من تعامل مع الحرکات وسماها صراحة؛ وقد عالج بها کثيرا من المسائل الصوتية. أن المتقابلات الثنائية أدت دورا مهما في تغيير دلالة المعنى الوظيفي للکلمة، غير أن هذا في أغلب الأحيان لا يکون له دور في تغيير دلالة المعنى المعجمي للکلمة الواحدة؛ لکن نقول إن جل هذه المتقابلات يرجع إلى اختلاف اللهجات في ضبط بنية الکلمة، فقبيلة تنطقها بالفتح، وأخرى تنطقها بالکسر، وثالثة بالضم، وهکذا؛ بيد أن صاحب المطلع لم ينسب هذه اللهجات إلى أصحابها في الغالب، مما دفعنا بالبحث عن هذه اللهجات، ونسبتها إلى قائليها والمصادر التي نسبتها إليها ـ ما أمکن ـ وما أورده العلماء من مفاضلات بين تلک اللهجات. الکلمات المفتاحية: التناوب الحرکي / الصوائت القصيرة / علم وظائف الأصوات / المطلع على أبواب الفقه / أبو الفتح البعلي. Lessons of functional phonology (The kinetic alternation and its formal colors in the book Al-Mutlaa on the Doors of Fiqh) (Of Abu Al-Fath Al-Baali, who died in 709 A.H.) Mohammed Abdul Hamid Hweizi Teacher of the origins of the language in the College of Arabic Language Itay Al-Baroud Al-Azhar University Abstract / This research is exposed to one of the lessons of functional phonology, namely, the alternation between short movements in the book of the Insider on the Chapters of Jurisprudence, to show through it the specificity of these movements and the difficulty of their behavior and the extent of their importance in building formulas and their diversity, and reinforces - by melting its materials into the crucible of linguistic approaches Modern - the interaction between the past and the present; Please find some outstanding achievements in the field of linguistic research. The nature of his studies required him to come out with an introduction, an introduction, three sections, a conclusion, and indexes. As for the introduction, it contains a brief presentation of the methodological framework of the research. As for the investigations, the first is the alternation between thinning movements, the second: alternation with intermediate movements, and the third: alternation with exaggerated movements. Followed by the conclusion, then the indexes. One of the most prominent results of this research was: that the language enjoys the harmony of its short refinement according to the norms that regulate the rules of use taste among Arabs, the most important of which is the influence of sounds with each other. Creating harmony, facilitating the articulation process, and economizing the muscular effort, and in this a demonstration of the great role that this alternation plays with sounds of heavy and light. That Ibn Jinni was the first to deal with the movements and explicitly called them; He dealt with many phonological issues. The binary interviews played an important role in changing the meaning of the functional meaning of the word, but this in most cases does not have a role in changing the meaning of the lexical meaning of a single word. But we say that most of these interviews are due to the different dialects in controlling the structure of the word. By fraction, by third by annexation, and so on; However, the author of the insider did not attribute these dialects to their owners most of the time, which prompted us to search for these dialects, and to attribute them to those who said them, the sources that they attributed to them - as much as possible - and what scholars have stated about the trade-offs between those dialects. key words: Rotational motor / short silences / phonology / insider on the gates of jurisprudence / Abu Al-Fath
This article deals with the semantics of the Turkish lexemes: iç and içeri, related to the internal part, internal space, or the contents of an object; dış and dışarı, correlated with the external part, the surface of the object, and with everything that surrounds it from the outside. Their morphological, syntactic, and compatibility features were considered. The relevance of the research carried out using the corpus method stems from the fact that lexical semantics (in the broad sense of the term) is one of the priority areas of modern linguistics because it studies the conditions for the correct construction of statements that are not determined by grammatical and syntactic norms. The analysis yielded the following results: the four lexemes under study are typically used with possessive suffixes when they perform the nominal function; the presence of ancient indicators of directionality in içeri and dışarı underlies their predominant use in the adverbial function; the very high frequency and wide lexical compatibility of the lexemes iç and içeri arise from the key role played in the linguistic consciousness of Turkish speakers by the idea of the internal space/filling of objects as a special entity that determines the state and possibilities of using the object. For the space external to the reference point, on the contrary, it is not a description of its state that is important, but a more accurate indication of the position of objects, which is associated with the possibility of reaching them and is enabled by the presence of a clearly structured system of tokens with spatial meaning. This is expressed in the lower frequency of the lexemes dış and dışarı and the formation of the meaning ‘outside’ in the possessive-marked postposition function. The conclusions obtained are of both practical importance for teaching the language and can be efficiently used as a promising material for typological lexico-semantic research, especially in what concerns the directions of development of the vocabulary of the Turkic languages.
Еducation is aimed at individualization, improvement of the professional route and the process of professional training of future speech therapists. Of particular importance are issues of professional, personal and moral culture, which embody the positive socio-personal achievements of pedagogical skills, personal values and communicative interaction in the system of special and inclusive education to be followed by both children and their parents. The purpose of the work is to determine the criteria, indicators and diagnostic tasks of formation of the professional culture of future speech therapists, to diagnose the state of formation of the professional culture of future speech therapists. Diagnostic sections allowed us to determine the criterion-indicator base of formation of the professional culture of future teachers-speech therapists. The culture of professional communication reflects the level of proficiency in reference speech in compliance with all established requirements of the Ukrainian language (orthoepic norms, lexical and grammatical design, etc.), intonation and content saturation of expression, degree of erudition and general tolerance, conscious and respectful attitude to the subject process. Personal and professional competence reflects the degree of formation of value professional orientations of the individual, dynamic activity, non-standard and flexible thinking, constant enrichment of special knowledge, interests, skills, broadening horizons, creative understanding of non-standard pedagogical problem situations. We have developed a set of diagnostic tasks for each of the selected criteria and formed a scale for evaluating their implementation. Since professional culture is a complex concept that includes integrated personality traits, we have identified the levels of its formation
In the linguistic picture of the world anthroponyms occupy a unique position, because man’s perception of himself as the center of the universe is manifested in the creation of many nominations, where the substantial nature of the human essence comes to the fore. The nomination of anthroponyms is an integral part of the nominative system of language, which follows all its laws and norms. The formation of new human names is carried out as a result of changes in the morpheme of the word, but most often through semantic changes in the word. The article is devoted to the analysis of nominative metonymic processes and lexical changes that took place in English nicknames at the end of the XX – beginning of the XXI century. Metonymic nicknames, formed on adjacency, are focused on the function of pointing up the characteristic feature of the object. Metonymy is a way of indirectly characterizing an object by highlighting one of its constant, variable or random features, which in this situation seems significant to the subject. The largest number of metonymic nicknames, according to our observations, is formed by metonymic transposition, where the whole is replaced by a part. The cognitive mechanism of metonymy creates a conceptual “shift”, and thus metonymy directly indicates the presence in the depths of human cognition on a larger-scale relative to the “parts” of conceptual units, knowledge of the world. Numerous nickname examples in the investigation testify to the fact that metonymy is one of the most productive ways of nickname formation and the meanings of new nominations give the exclusive material to the scientists for further linguistic, sociological, and psychological research.
This chapter provides an interesting and cohesive collection of articles documenting, the call ‘Standard Average European hosts Africa and Asia in the new millennium’. Urban varieties belong to all genders and age-groups in a variety of functions, “male youthspeak” is more restricted. Urban varieties are defined by their difference from the older standard and dialect forms of the languages, and are in the process of settling on their own norms, difficult as that may be in a brave new world of code-switching, rapid technological lexical expansion and the intrusions of European languages. The modern products, pastimes and concepts that prove increasingly attractive to young people come packaged in English; at best, speakers manage a hybridity between community language and colonial and/or European language. The opening up of a linguistic and stylistic continuum is well illustrated in Yazgül Simsek & Heike Wiese’s account of the new migrant forms of German.
The medical profession is closely related to the speech activity, so the doctor must be able to master the word, because it plays a key role in the relationship between doctor and patient. Today, the purpose of learning a language in a non-language institution of higher education is not only to acquire skills of professional communication, but also the formation of language personality in general. The article considers the didactic possibilities of the professional text in the classes on the educational component «Ukrainian language (for professional use)». It is noted that in the medical institution of higher education the professional and language training of the future doctor takes place in parallel. It is emphasized that working with texts provides an opportunity to demonstrate the functioning of language phenomena in the professional sphere, to develop skills in constructing texts in the specialty. The ability to create their own statements is related to the ability to perceive, understand, analyze another person's speech and reproduce it. The author notes that only by working with professional texts, future doctors enrich their vocabulary, perceive the meaning of words, professional terms; explain spelling, lexical, morphological, syntactic, stylistic norms, and this contributes to the formation and improvement of their own speech. The definition of «professional text» is clarified and presented in detail. Texts and tasks to them are offered and expediency of their use for development of communicative abilities and skills in the future professional activity is proved.
Reviewed by: Histoires de dire 2: petit glossaire des marqueurs formés sur le verbe dire by Jean-Claude Anscombre et Laurence Rouanne Carole Salmon and Amanda Dalola Anscombre, Jean-Claude, etLaurence Rouanne. Histoires de dire 2: petit glossaire des marqueurs formés sur le verbe dire. Peter Lang, 2020 ISBN 978-3-0343-3751-9. Pp. 638. The second in a series on discourse markers formed on the verb dire, this volume seeks to establish the rigorous study of this underrepresented grammatical subclass from both a usage and theory-based perspective. The introduction to the collection begins with a theoretical discussion of what a discourse marker functionally and structurally is—a fixed non-lexical group of words with syntactic autonomy that serves to indicate a stance taken by the speaker at the moment of utterance. Focus then moves to establishing the prevalence of discourse markers containing the verb dire in normative French (130+ in total)—c’est pour dire, qu’on se le tienne pour dit, est-ce à dire, etc.—and centering the discussion on the 23 of them under examination in this edition. One part dictionary, the other part treatise in linguistic theory, the work proceeds in alphabetical order by discourse marker, each chapter structured à la dictionary entry meets scientific article: summary, introduction/description of corpus, establishment of morphological and distributional properties, examples, theoretical considerations, linguistic analysis leading to functional determination, conclusions. Ten of the eleven chapters draw evidence from synchronic data, taken from online speech corpora (frTenTen12, Corpus du français parlé parisien, among others), Google Books, and Google News, while one chapter considers longitudinal data from the sixteenth century to present-day, taken from an online corpus of written text (Frantext). Through the course of the entries, it is demonstrated to the reader how au(x) dire(s) de X, for example, can be conceived of as an adverbial phrase that expresses the speaker’s epistemic stance toward the contents of its grammatical complement, while avoir beau dire can be linked to three different uses over the last five centuries: one that renders the words uttered by dire useless, one as a conjunction with the pragmatic function of bien que ‘although’, and one as a discourse marker that takes an assertive stance on the language that immediately precedes or follows it. The collection winds up in an ordered list of discourse markers that regroups both the contents of this volume and the previous one, linking each expression back (in a separate column) to its author(s) and volume for easy reference. What makes this text unique is its ability to bring linguistic theory and usage norms to the dictionary format, such that any user who might look up an expression would instantly find themselves nose-to-nose with detailed instructions on how to use it, theory supporting each of its functional, semantic, and pragmatic variants, and real-world examples from text and speech attesting them throughout the documented history of the language. As such, the collection’s target audience is as wide as its linguistic coverage: students/users of [End Page 264] the French language will benefit from the examples and metalinguistic descriptions, while formal and French-focused linguists will find much to reflect on in the theoretical discussions. Comprehensive for those who want it, accessible for those who do not, this linguistically fortified “superdictionary” of dire discourse markers is the ultimate hybridized addition to your French-language or linguistics bookshelf. [End Page 265] Carole Salmon and Amanda Dalola University of South Carolina Copyright © 2022 American Association of Teachers of French
This research aims to find out the women’s language features that used by the main female character in “To Kill a Mockingbird Novel 1960” using Lakoff’s theory (1975) Women’s Language theory. The research will also describe how the main female character expressed every sentence that has women’s language features with stylisctic analysis and show the situation in the sentence with Hyme’s (1974) Speaking theory. The descriptive analytics approach was applied in this research to characterize the aspects and qualities of the subject. The research findings show that lexical hedges or fillers, tag question, rising intonation on declaratives, empty adjective, emphatic emphasis, superpolite form, hypercorrect grammar, avoidance of powerful swear words, and intensifier are nine features of women's language used by the main female character. The researcher also finds how the main female character expressed her sentences with linguistic deviation and literary analysis. And the researcher discovers 8 elements of situation that happened in the conversation, namely setting, participant, ends (goal), act sequence, key, instrumentalities, norms of interaction, and genre. The research was able to identify the women's language features and define how they are communicated as well as the situation in the conversation as a conclusion.
Defined as fixed, unchangeable, and hereditary, the family name carries characteristics of historical and geographical identity. They originate from different word classes and different dialectal or homeland idioms. Therefore, their grammatical and lexical characteristics show certain particularities in relation to the standard language norm. Description of morphological and morphosyntactic characteristics of surnames in language manuals is mostly indicated in the case of foreign surnames, cases of declension of female sur-names ending in -a, writing and declension of double surnames. Not rarely, Croatian surnames and their declension patterns are causing problems for Croatian language speakers. This paper analyzes surnames of the region of Zadar, their formation patterns as well as their peculiarities in relation to the standard language form. Analyzed surnames are chosen according to their re-presentation and include all formation suffixes of surnames of the region of Zadar. This paper also tries to define to what extent speakers of the Croatian language have difficulties in defining their declension patterns. The starting assumption of the research study is that, because of their geographical distribution or frequency of use, certain surnames are closer and more familiar to Croatian native speakers. Hence, less deviation from the standard is observed in their declension by comparison to the declension of surnames that are less represented or less widespread.
Previous research has traditionally used first language (L1) English linguistic norms as a benchmark to assess second language (L2) production (Cook, 1992) and to select experimental stimuli in bilingual studies (Vaid & Meuter, 2017). Despite the immense contribution of this approach, L1 benchmarks may not completely represent the linguistic experience of L2 users, and they might limit our understanding of multicompetence or the state of knowing multiple languages (Cook, 1991; Klein, 1998; Vaid & Meuter, 2017). A few attempts to develop indices that more closely represent L2 linguistic experience have been made (e.g., Monteiro et al., 2020; Naismith et al., 2018), but researchers have been slow to respond to the need for more L2 benchmarks. The primary aim of this dissertation is to help address this gap by developing lexical benchmarks based on L2 corpora and L2 behavioral data collected for this dissertation. The corpus-based benchmarks included L2 lexical frequency indices, L2 range indices, and L2 semantic context indices based on Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) and Word to Vector (Word2vec) computational methods. The benchmarks based on behavioral data included L2 word recognition indices from a word naming task performed by bilinguals studying in the United States (N = 94). These benchmarks were validated against psycholinguistic data of L2 lexical processing and human judgments of L2 writing proficiency. The results suggested that the L2 benchmarks were successful predictors of L2 writing quality and L2 word processing and were more predictive than L1 benchmarks in some cases. Analysis of individual output also suggested that the L2 benchmarks provide frequency and word recognition information that may be unique to L2 users.
Il lavoro passa in rassegna gli studi sulle competenze scrittorie degli studenti universitari e illustra i risultati dell’analisi condotta sul corpus UniverS-Ita, che raccoglie testi argomentativi di universitari frequentanti, nell’anno accademico 2020-2021, il secondo anno di corsi di laurea triennali o a ciclo unico di area umanistica, scientifica. economico-sociale e sanitaria; più precisamente, sono stati esaminati 90 degli oltre 2000 testi che formano il corpus con lo scopo di rilevare le più frequenti deviazioni dalla norma in ambito ortografico, morfosintattico, lessicale e testuale.
 
 The written Italian of undergraduate students: first results of the Univers-Ita Corpus analysis
 The paper reviews studies on the writing skills of college students and illustrates the results of the analysis conducted on the UniverS-Ita corpus, which collects argumentative texts of college students who attended, during the 2020-2021 academic year, the second year of three-year or single-cycle degree programs in the humanities, sciences economic-social, and health; more specifically, 90 of the more than 2,000 texts that make up the corpus were examined with the aim of detecting the most frequent deviations from the norm in spelling, morphosyntactic, lexical, and textual areas.
The article covers the concepts of media linguistics and media ecology as the leading areas of modern media studies, their terminology and issues. Different approaches to the definition of media ecology are given and its role and tasks in different spheres of life are indicated. The scientific achievements of some Ukrainian and German linguists and media experts in the field of studying the German media space are analyzed in order to find ways of positive influence of mass media on society, in particular the influence of media ecology on media competence, cultural and ethical norms, communication between all members of society. The importance of studying the strategies and tactics of the influence of the media on the consolidation and isolation processes in society is emphasized. In addition, the article provides a linguistic analysis of the coverage of one of the most pressing global problems of today – coronavirus vaccination – in the German media source “ZEIT ONLINE” in order to establish its impact on the life of German society. In particular, the most commonly used lexical items and phrases are identified, which reflect the main topics of this problem, namely: compulsory vaccination, attitude of citizens to vaccination, dismissal of unvaccinated citizens from work or even dismissal, vaccination of children, government measures to prevent coronavirus and more. It is established that the coverage of the problem of vaccination in the German media is a clear example of the isolating impact of the media on society, as this issue is debatable and causes a lot of controversy during the discussion. In conclusion, it is noted that the use of appropriate means, in particular linguistic, in the media can significantly affect social processes, both isolation and consolidation. Possession of strategies and tactics of influence is crucial for the formation of public opinion on the global problems of mankind and the direction of its life.
The article analyzes the presence of the possible world of film text in A.P.Zvyagintsev’s and O.I.Negin’s screenplay Dislike. This text for the first time became the subject of philological analysis using comparative and contextual-functional methods. The director’s published comments allow tracing the path from the literary screenplay itself to the film text. As a result of the sampling of linguistic material, which reveals the presence of the possible world of the film text in the script, the specificity of its categories (integrity, coherence, completeness, dynamics, etc.) was revealed. The possible world of cinema text determines the a priori variability and uncertainty of the script text. The article reflects the features of the scenario functioning of lexical-grammatical and syntactic language means. The screenplay and the film text are interdependent, but not identical entities. It has been established that the development of the technical parameters of the film text has an indirect effect on the film script. One of the aims of the study is to critically analyze the notions that the screenplay does not have the merits of a literary text. In the course of analyzing the presence of a possible world of film text, the working hypothesis was confirmed that a film script is a text with a motivated violation of communicative and pragmatic norms (accuracy, relevance, expressiveness). It represents a new type of text, the anomalies of which are due to its intended purpose for semiotic translation into cinematic text, the diverse nature of its receptive program.
This research aims at discovering deviations of speech mechanisms that cause errors and mistakes in blogs and online media publications. The deviations of the speech mechanisms are revealed in lexical mischoices, grammatical and discourse errors. We apply semantic and discourse analysis to uncover the errors and mistakes in our dataset (5500 words) of erroneous sentences from Russian blogs and online media. We offer the classification of the mistakes based on the relations between the appropriate and erroneous word forms. We compare the errors and mistakes from our dataset with the deviations from norms in the texts from Corpus of Russian Students Texts. The comparison allows for clarifying the peculiarities of the computer mediated communication norms. We uncover the causes of the mistakes thanks to psycholinguistic analysis of speech production. The bloggers are susceptible to contextual priming. They made wrong lexical choices under the influence of erroneous anticipation of the following element in word combinations. Their underdeveloped skills of verbalizing complex content bring in wordiness, distortion of propositions and logical connections. In the computer-mediated communication, syntactical errors regularly occurs in blogs because of the trend to choose overcomplicated structures. The mistakes in the blogs are mainly caused by hypercorrection and diminished inhibitory control.
Camfranglais is the language of young Cameroonians who are trying to adapt it to French. Despite the diversity of forms imposed by the mixture of French, English, pidjin-english and other identity languages, it is noticed that the lexico-morphological system of camfranglais function within the base on the French language rules. The morphological transformations occurred on words portray the variations of grammatical categories imposed by the discursive situations. It has been found that speakers resort to derivation, more precisely to suffixation in creating words which enrich the lexicon. Thus, the creation of new words and their usages have been noticed in language use on the part of speakers who were under focus in different campuses and university rooms such as Maroua, Ngaoundéré and Yaoundé in 2015. Direct and interactive observations from sociolinguistics have helped in collecting data that were analyzed. The analyses were done following a normative approach with the intention of showing how Camfranglais establishes its norms. The morpho-syntactic rules which buttress the dynamism of this sociolect are observed at the lexical level of the verbal and syntactic systems.
In his work How Children of the Preschool Age Observe Language, Gvozdev argued that a child of two-three years old could fix and correct errors in the speech of other people. At the same time, numerous priming-experiments built on the data of synonymous constructions of common language indicate that least frequency constructions willingly used by children in this age make the greatest influence on children’s speech. The aim of this article is to analyze speech behavior of a child who hears phrases with errors or receives a task to repeat wrongly constructed statements. Nobody has already studied constructions with speech errors in priming-experiments on Russian data. We analyzed the results of a pilot experiment on Russian data developed by non-native speakers of Russian from the Max Plank Institute for Evolutional Anthropology. There were 33 three-year-old children involved in the experiment. The texts included random deviations from both speech norms and frequency usage accepted in the Russian register of communication with children. Experiment results allow making some interim conclusions. The priming-effect on the perception of uncommon forms is low. Speech production mechanisms started to work when performing a task to repeat phrases heard by a child; that was followed with modifications of unusual forms, probably unconscious. Syntactic level (word order and choice of cases and prepositions) is least influenced by the prime. The previous speech experience also influences the ability to repeat what a child heard. The experience includes already formed grammatical representations of a certain child, the frequency of lexical units (including special contexts). While facing unusual constructions, the mechanism of evaluating the statement as “possible/impossible”, and “right/wrong” is launched which leads to its conscious or unconscious modification. Refs 18.
The goal in this paper is to provide a linguacultural interpretation of the axiologically and culturally marked concept of sin, as one of the basic concepts of the spiritual traditional culture of the Serbian population of Prizren, along with its linguacultural lexicographic description. The study is based on the material found in the ZbirkarečiizPrizrenavolume by DimitrijeČemerikić, which is a relevant source for linguacultural studies of dialect lexis, considering the fact that it provides important linguistic and extralinguistic information from all spheres of life in old Prizren. A cognitive-semantic analysis of the concept units has indicated that the concept sin in the Serbian speech of Prizren realizes universal characteristics (sin → the violation of religious-ethical norms, a moral transgression), but also manifests a series of linguacultural specificities (the concept has a fully negative connotation, the greatest sin against God is disregarding the fast on important holidays; the greatest punishment for sin is a painful and slow death; some of the greatest crimes include the folk superstition of predicting someone’s death; the folk superstition that only a sinful man can become a vampire; that a sinful woman is one lacking morals in a sexual sense, a fornicator;; the stereotype of “the sinful”, or poor, unhappy man is a man without anyone of his own, of a woman – a mother who loses a child and has an ill child, who as victims, the bearers of the primordial sin, evoke collective pity. The lexicographic description of the representative units of the concept is based on the layered ideographic and lexical-semantic structure of the concept itself, it follows the elements of the conceptual content (the religious- semantic structure of the concept; the irreligious, profane component; the folklore component), registers the cognitive and semantic features of the concept, the paradigmatic, syntagmatic, derivational, and associative connections among the constituents, contains illustrative material, a linguacultural comment and additional (cultural) information which contributes to the complete reconstruction of the concept of sin in the linguistic knowledge of the Serbian population of Prizren from the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century.
<p style="text-align: justify;">Speech deficits in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) can be observed at child&rsquo;s early development in the form of a deficit in understanding addressed speech, abnormal prelinguistic development, and deficits in the communicative sphere. These factors further prevent children with ASD from successful building reading skills. With all the variety of reading difficulties in children with ASD, reading comprehension problems are the most common. At the same time, it has been repeatedly shown that the deficit in reading comprehension is based on the deficit of oral speech, and the volume of the vocabulary and the level of mastering the syntactic norms of the language play a big role. The colleagues of the Federal Resource Center for the Organization of Comprehensive Support to Children with ASD (FRC MSUPE) developed the author&rsquo;s method called &laquo;Speaking Skills&raquo;. It is aimed at developing reading skills in children with ASD. The method is intended for teaching preschoolers and younger schoolchildren in groups. The article describes the method implementation step by step, give the scheme of a typical lesson, as well as the criteria for assessing skills necessary for mastering the reading. We provide examples of original didactic materials that allow the child to &ldquo;read&rdquo; the sentence, knowing the minimum number of letters. It increases the child&rsquo;s interest and motivation for classes. The technique of relying on one letter, which is a lexically significant unit, creates an attitude to reading as a process of extracting meaning, which increases learning effectiveness. It also describes how to adapt the program to the special educational needs of children with ASD: organization of educational environment; adaptation and the way of introducing the materials; coping with leading developmental challenges. The design of the planned pilot study of the effectiveness of the presented methodology is described. Thus, using the method &ldquo;Speaking Skills&rdquo; allow not only to more successfully master reading skills, but also to fill in the deficiencies in the communicative and social sphere.</p>
The issue of studying gender stereotypes in different cultures stems from the need to outline current trends in the variability of normative mental representation of men and women. A cognitive-communicative approach makes it possible to interpret conceptual changes in group language consciousness. A stereotype is understood both as a format of knowledge with a prototypical organization and as a cognitive scheme that structures a conceptual system. As part of the study a questionnaire was conducted and over 2,000 reactions about typically male (1,064) and female (1,053) characteristics were collected. The ranking of conceptual-thematic groups and their components determining the meaning of language categories is based on lexical representation of gender characteristics. The research methodology combines conceptual and definitional analyses of lexical units denoting stereotypical male and female qualities, as well as cognitive modeling of prototypical organization of the concepts under study. The aim of the research is to model a structure of basic gender concepts in their group interpretation. The prototypical core of the concept МУЖЧИНА (MAN) consists of traditional masculine characteristics (responsibility, strength, courage, bravery), while the core of the concept ЖЕНЩИНА (WOMAN) includes traditional feminine qualities (emotionality, caretaking, kindness). The pre-core zone of the concept МУЖЧИНА (MAN) is mainly expressed by orientation to achievement; public image; dedication to moral norms and principles. Intellect, family values and sociability are peripheral. The pre-core zone of the concept ЖЕНЩИНА (WOMAN) is characterized by career orientation; morality; communicativeness. Family values, expression of emotions, overcoming intelligence-based discrimination are peripheral, a woman’s appearance is the least frequent. Along with typical gender qualities, a transitional (metagender) zone can be distinguished, where traditional lexico-semantic characteristics of masculinity and femininity are being re-coded. Thus, gender categorization in the Russian speakers’ language consciousness can be defined as a binary model based on core prototypical characteristics. However, dynamic processes of gender neutralization competing with the most representative characteristics of basic gender concepts are observed at the boundary of concept zones.
The article examines the changes that have occurred in family-related communication. The research is based on family speech handwritten notes and transcripts of voice records made by the author and the students of her special seminar, correspondence of family members and relatives in various messengers, as well as on the speech material presented in articles and books published by various researchers. The purpose of the study is to show how changes in everyday life, caused by new realities of the domestic sphere, various events in the country and the world, the development of information technology, affect family-related communication and speech, and by and large, the very existence of the family. Changes in the domestic sphere – the emergence of new social objects, new household cleaning supplies, development of fashion industry and everything that is, in one way or another, connected with the daily routine of a person – lead to expanding and updating the lexical field of familyrelated communication. There is high penetration of new lexical units, primarily borrowings from other languages, into family speech, including the speech of children. The research has shown that such an active and rapid borrowing process can give rise to misunderstanding between different generations in the family. The focus of the study is on the development of mediated communication in everyday life. Both positive and negative factors of information technologies influence are noted. Mediatization of the population, the use of cellular phones affect the nature of family communication, etiquette, and cultural norms and absorb free time. The line between work and home communication is blurred, which has a devastating effect on the life of the family as one of the most important institutions of society, designed to ensure the stability of its existence.
Abstract In this paper, we propose and justify the cross‐linguistic study of the concept of truth through empirical studies of truth predicates, with results of such studies. We first conceptually explore the possibility of cross‐linguistic disagreement about truth purely due to linguistic norms governing truth predicates, which may imply a kind of pluralism about the concept of truth. We then consider the conditions under which we would be justified in inferring this sort of pluralism from the fact of such cross‐linguistic disagreement. Next, we report results of three studies on the use of English “is true” and Japanese two truth predicates, as well as “is correct” and its Japanese counterpart. We then report another set of studies using a different vignette, where the radical cross‐linguistic difference observed in earlier studies disappeared. These data together suggest that the moral‐political factor in the truth‐bearer (utterance) strongly affects the uses of Japanese truth predicates but not those of English. Finally, we will discuss the implications of the studies and results reported here, and the empirical possibility of what we call lexical alethic pluralism, for debates over relativism, theories of meaning, and the deflationary and inflationary theories of truth.
To refine the word-foot theory, I have worked to incorporate statistical studies of related meters and recent developments in linguistics. The theory now provides explanations for how the meter arose, how it developed within Old Norse, Old English, Old Saxon, and Old High German, and how it evolved into the Middle English meter of poems like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.1 Here I return to the Old English (OE) period, this time with different emphases. Rather than showing how the theory explains observations in previous research, I present an updated theory on its own, with more attention to problems in alternative approaches. Rather than reviewing all available evidence for the theory, I focus on the clearest and most accessible evidence that shows why this kind of theory is required.The first task for a metrical theorist is to identify what Roman Jakobson called a metrical constant: something not required by ordinary grammar that holds true throughout a poem.2 The alliterative line consists of two verses, the first called the a-verse and the second called the b-verse. Eduard Sievers observed that most verses have four metrical positions if we assume that adjacent unstressed syllables share a single weak position called a Senkung, “dip.”3 This straightforward counting procedure would provide a metrical constant if it identified four positions in every verse, but it does not. To account for exceptions with three positions, rules have been proposed that “promote” an unstressed syllable to a stressed syllable at certain locations in the line.4 Identifying these locations has been a valuable contribution to research but does not explain the exceptions. From a strictly theoretical perspective, a rule of “promotion” is simply another way of saying that unstressed syllables are encountered where a four-position constant would require stress, something that happens about once every eight lines in Beowulf.5 Subrules permitting exceptions to more general rules can provide genuine explanations, of course, if they are supported by independent empirical evidence. A well-known example is Verner's Law, which permits well-defined exceptions to Grimm's Law. Verner's Law is accepted as a scientific principle because it is supported by discoveries about Indo-European stress placement, not because it categorizes exceptions to a useful rule of thumb.6 Adherents of Yakovlev's theory make no serious attempt to account for five-position verses, speculating that they survive from a lost earlier stage of the meter.7Sievers's system of scansion provided an invaluable account of the metrical facts. It has played a foundational role in English historical linguistics and in the editing and dating of verse texts.8 In all but a handful of difficult cases, the word-foot theory arrives from an entirely different direction at the constraints on verse form identified by Sievers, providing independent support for work based on those constraints. Sievers did not deduce his constraints from plausible hypotheses that apply to all verses, however. He did not provide a theory, strictly speaking.What all OE verse patterns have in common is that they can be filled by exactly two OE words. Verses are normally realized as phrases, and two-word phrases occur far more often in poetry than in prose.9 These facts can be explained by a hypothesis that the verse consists of two “word feet,” each foot having the pattern of an OE word. The word-foot hypothesis is simple, natural, and well supported by empirical evidence, but it challenges common assumptions about the nature of poetic form. Metrical scholarship has focused on forms that repeat a fixed pattern of syllables to create a linguistic rhythm within the line. The foot, as traditionally conceived, is a rhythmical unit. As Sievers observed, Old English meter does not employ feet of this kind.10The word-foot theory posits nine foot patterns that correspond to native word patterns, unstressed words and compounds included. Verses have a regular foot count but the permissible combinations of feet do not provide a regular linguistic rhythm. In excluding poetic rhythm from the system that defines acceptable verses, I do not mean to suggest that the topic has no theoretical significance. John Collins Pope has argued eloquently for the importance of poetic rhythm and I agree with much of what he says.11 My claim is that rhythm and meter employ two distinct rule systems, both very interesting indeed. A compelling performance of a poem, I would argue, requires alignment of metrical patterns, as represented in metrical theory, with rhythmical patterns, as represented in music theory. When a single foot pattern is iterated to create the verse or line pattern, as in iambic pentameter, alignment of the two systems is so straightforward that the metrical rules look like rhythmical rules. It is no trivial matter, though, to explain how Old English metrical patterns can be aligned with patterns that a music theorist would recognize as rhythmical.12 Further discussion of this topic would take us beyond the scope of the present article. A separate study is underway.13As Sievers sorted verses into Verstypen, “verse types,” he made every effort to arrive at the of He not the of course, for on a regular required for a the for A example of is In I a to the word foot in verse has a pattern, with a stressed syllable by an unstressed a syllable with stress for an unstressed syllable in or both The stress of and are but the on In the second foot is often filled by a stressed syllable by an unstressed A is a in are has no in the first foot and is to the has in the first foot and most often in the b-verse. of unstressed syllables is in and more in but in as for example in on he to which has four syllables more than The word-foot theory is not by the of verse but by the and of the which a native of Old English by The verse patterns are as distinct combinations of word feet and the is to explain why combinations are meter to a general for of with as and I the for meters that are for of are from of the in which the meter positions from metrical feet from from phrases, lines from for metrical are from for the linguistic Metrical are as rules that be certain at a in metrical the of a metrical the of a metrical the of a metrical principle of is from a patterns are identified if they correspond to linguistic patterns that native by and Metrical patterns are to identify if they correspond to linguistic feet work well in poetry because the word pattern of the is from a metrical a effort of be in a meter for of course, but the of a line be acceptable to the is the most principle of form. The of an is by from to provide for a theory of acceptable verses provide to the nature of poetic form. of a four-position constant make or no effort to explain these on that of no the of research on Old English A this has an rules for the verse can be by a system of rules that These rules the and of verses in to acceptable verses from acceptable rule and or more make a verse constraints on verse patterns are for a meter that foot In meters that repeat a single foot pattern, foot in locations and counting feet is a trivial can words with the foot in lines like we the first line of constraints on of foot but they are In the line the occur in the first two and the two feet are realized as in with the principle of In OE foot and in locations and take to the The of word feet with word for both feet and verses can have two in OE rules to foot patterns from verse patterns are required.The metrical are positions, which are from The position is from syllables with word The position is from syllables with word stress, which syllables and The position is from unstressed OE syllables are normally stress and the for the position is from the linguistic from the is on the most position of the verse, which is by This position be by a stressed syllable or by the of a stressed syllable by an unstressed is no in syllables with the positions from a stressed syllable normally with the unstressed syllable on an on is the unstressed syllable is and the would for syllables with stress provides for the nine foot patterns by OE with for the word The foot patterns are from to from to and from to more I employ these in is a foot pattern for every OE word pattern, for patterns that a verse, with of the in each foot A foot is normally realized as a word but is realized as a word at a in As we of word as feet is to The of a stressed syllable by an unstressed syllable is to a stressed as well as When for OE as like Here and I within is no independent evidence for the stress by Sievers in weak forms like The word-foot theory these as than as adjacent unstressed syllables to separate positions within the foot it to of four metrical positions the of a The OE word pattern is the pattern of words with a stressed syllable by an unstressed In with this word pattern is as the foot pattern, to the feet with no stress are feet with two are feet with metrical position are and feet with more than two metrical positions are a foot based on a common word pattern is more than a foot based on a more common word OE words normally have an syllable with stress by a syllable with The feet based on compounds are and common are compounds with a first an unstressed or The more feet are and is the foot pattern and words with this pattern are how on as word by as words by native are no OE compounds with the pattern and be no feet with this pattern to The metrical facts this foot can be with an foot to form an verse like the of an is the can a word of as for example in did his Here the foot is by a word and a word than by an with an the do is to an unstressed syllable the of the would be and but are no verses like This metrical be in a four-position system that adjacent unstressed syllables in weak and the The word-foot theory, on the each unstressed syllable a foot to its with two unstressed syllable share an position with a stressed syllable by and adjacent unstressed share the position by which is at a in to by in verses like at in for verses like on on the where the of syllables are with in and but not in his or A four-position constant provides no way to explain this In the word-foot theory, unstressed syllables the foot are from unstressed syllables the foot, which positions and rules of unstressed word or can be within a foot to an acceptable verse pattern, as for example in and or the more than unstressed to a foot a pattern that is common or a that would be to by than of a with its exceptions. The patterns of unstressed syllables are those in which the first foot is In these patterns, syllables the first verse by the foot from an In patterns, syllables verse and in the a verse form like iambic pentameter, which a fixed metrical pattern, to the pattern In metrical is by from the metrical pattern, called and metrical rules the of the line within acceptable In OE much is by the nine foot patterns into acceptable verse to verse patterns is more strictly than to the fixed pattern of iambic pentameter, and verse patterns that far from metrical are The verse pattern is the pattern with two which a of four metrical positions and a of two to the verse patterns with a single position are those with two positions and or more positions are and those with more than four metrical positions are constraints on verse form apply within of his or of the word-foot theory these constraints as rules that apply to all verses with the The of a rule in on the at which it a rule at the of the line than at the of the verse, which in than at the of the When two rules the rule and the rule is metrical is a rule of be if it with more than rule of in the rules apply at verse rule has a The on the that the rule or a and a of this kind make it to what of verses would count as evidence the identify of from is but not often be in separate of the acceptable verse patterns are provided in English lines are from in the in which the meter In this as in rules for stress and are from the word of a of a a and a word The its most stress on its first the The to the and its most stress on its first the The at the of the and normally in of phrases as in phrases of a or and a now but the in would as As and and more stress than of in is in the metrical from of the to the is as of the metrical of the to the a-verse metrical of the The most position in the line is the first position of the in is the first position of the b-verse. I to these as the In a verse with two positions, the second is than the the is to the a second position in the has than a second position in the position in the first foot is more than an position in the second is with linguistic In OE stressed syllables The of is related to metrical as most often on positions and is on the first and most position of the verse, normally by a or with are normally on positions where is or on an position in the first foot of the pattern or the pattern but on the more position in the second foot of the patterns and As we have observed the of on metrical as well as linguistic on positions and is on the first of the on positions in the first foot of and but is in the second foot of rule of the can be within a rule system that and to metrical have an by a more with two The is called the and the The more is called the It consists of a by the and a that the English requires within the linguistic Old English requires within the the of the is required to This is the first The as and count as however. with with and with for of word with a stressed can with and the not in The rules for are based on syllable in they are to rules for in the of the apply at the of the line and employ the for rules can be at a in with rules and are of the word-foot theory with and but the can be as the acceptable combinations of word feet by Sievers as I this as the of verse patterns with a second foot of are from from are if they are A patterns with two positions are to the and of the first foot, to the of the second The two patterns with a single by Sievers as are as and of are in OE meter to the foot and do occur in the Old which The for from the and the second foot is is as the of verse patterns that have a first foot or and a second foot with of the more patterns or patterns are to the of the first foot, to the of the second In the example for the foot is realized as a with an a The two-word example for from another poem, is as the of verse patterns in which the first foot is and the second foot has the pattern or the ordinary pattern patterns are to the of the first foot and to the of the second is as the of verse patterns in which the first foot has and the second foot is patterns are to the of the first foot, to the and of the second In and the second foot has the patterns as in In the the second foot has the patterns as in The very and very pattern once in The two-word from has a with the of pattern is the with a second as the with a first foot that is both and the as with no theoretical significance. of the word-foot theory apply to every verse with the of the and apply to but not all patterns within a by The patterns and for have and are distinct from the patterns and A word-foot rule in patterns does not apply to or rule acceptable verse patterns form a and the of the can be in a In with that the foot pattern to the can be by the foot pattern to form an acceptable verse are to the In the for verse patterns with of of of of and of and in the verse The each of these be to identify a of feet that the rule or foot patterns and are from the to constraints on a word the second foot from its the word it in which the word stress, as or than as or in the a word the second foot and its word the word is to metrical The verse to of a word to a stressed like the from which it is theorist a metrical rule be to that it does A rule verses with more than a syllables would no exceptions but would to verses from word of in way to the work by a metrical rule is to a kind of that is it is and the rules. of this called are identified with an I an in for verse the word-foot theory, two-word phrases that as verses are from those that do not and of two-word phrases is to in the As it a two-word verse can be by of an two-word by a in by with another word in the poem, or by an alternative word rules no exceptions would be very indeed. I employ from in most for with of in which both feet have more than two metrical The patterns are identified as in for acceptable verse patterns the words from in I provide the of the verse in which the word first the Old English period, the from word to well and available to Old English and word to metrical verses can often be by an alternative word by the of in it can into with which of on positions, or with which of the of the line. As in with a more than in verses of with feet of to and In verses, the normally the to do so if The of in is provided to the of each the in verses and in verses with a more foot or of would much The patterns in are the verses in I have the word that is most of the time but in the most verse compounds that are or in These poetic compounds provide and the poetic compounds are like of the a for In the first is The has the as the for of can often be by a word in an acceptable verse with a in the to a verse that would be verses with poetic compounds are because the stress in these compounds as in are by of a verse in or by of a verse that of the two feet that verses are from the metrical system by for compounds like an form of the are by two words and are difficult to from two-word the metrical system feet to they would be difficult to from two-word verses of has the for as a verse pattern has very for as a foot pattern because it is than the foot pattern and two syllables as The verse pattern and the foot pattern from the metrical to a metrical pattern if the alternative is to the words from Rather than OE as verses, to the constraints in rule more than three verses realized as compounds in an verse with the pattern a verse with the pattern realized as a a verse with the pattern and an verse with the pattern realized as a meter permits of a foot as a word with two word to the constraints in rule of a word as a foot rules the verse are of feet realized as word and the verse patterns by syllables are in the verses and the word as a foot is a These verses and in have a or on the and the of the position is by In cases, the verse pattern to a word as a foot in with which syllables with weak stress to an position as well as an syllables of this kind often as the of a OE the most in the can an The verse patterns and do not acceptable foot patterns, but they do of word as OE feet from verses very indeed. of as a foot pattern it to to a rule feet with more than three metrical as a foot pattern because words with this pattern have a to words with the pattern word patterns are employ first In Old Norse, of from the the word pattern and the foot no of with an foot, employ an verse pattern in of are we in with we as this verse alliterative on the position of the second foot and alliterative to the the foot pattern in two as the foot the of the and in the foot with The word is not a and be as a verse patterns by are by in and occur the first are from the feet that occur the first in and The unstressed are normally as syllables and the more as the of unstressed linguistic with an in syllable is by and to a stressed is as to or and like have and are to be from In be as unstressed as or as The because they a to a stressed and a to Old lost all of its unstressed but the and and at the of the line. In it in the a-verse and in the b-verse. is in the A and patterns that which are of and are normally realized as or with very and are realized as unstressed the most unstressed words. is useful in OE poetry because it for of words in required for unstressed lost in Old Norse, no and The are for in with a single in for the of in the the are in with which of The are for of and with in each that unstressed have as feet than unstressed they are more common in the unstressed have and are as with feet is acceptable in verse patterns of or A verse with a foot would be difficult to from a single foot with a of feet and verses that because is useful in Old English Old no for verses with feet in an like in can an in verse which as can an position by rule is in the patterns and the verse pattern does not correspond to an acceptable of an and a as The pattern does to a that be as Here as the feet from verses with The patterns are with verses in of verse patterns is now beyond two a word with three or more unstressed syllables provides an for a In verses with feet a word for this the with the pattern In with an on the provides an for the first of words and is in these because they no and verse not in but to in position as verses with more than two syllables positions, and to with the pattern are the verse has In the second stress has because it does not with an unstressed syllable in the word and with a syllable of These patterns are to the a-verse by the principle of The of it to the foot from an and this is in of by or more the eight with two syllables the first stress, the foot is realized as a as two or as a single word. the more word and these are of words for In for the word consists of a and an unstressed unstressed are as in or in the with As a no of that in at and in the Old lost no to two-word of and these do occur in Old English Old unstressed for feet in all the patterns that The for in the foot as an unstressed for that unstressed the first in more than those in an that to a the first in these the of are in and which Sievers a The word-foot theory provides a single for in all these the to feet from can be to more than of an OE most OE poems survive in It is all to that a theory of the meter to account for an that well be to A theory that accepted all verses as would patterns that are or to be of a four-position constant focus on of patterns and attention to patterns that are not verses is an a theory for When a is statistical can to verses from verses with but Sievers statistical evidence with to verses, but his can take us so Further requires an theory that explains why verses are and why the are as they The word-foot theory is in the of It is into theoretical linguistics and no assumptions about the of or The theory is in the its rules from an based on general that from a single metrical patterns are based on linguistic of the meter to of the in which general Metrical rules of the theory to the and of verses with a of The of these rules is to in the for the phrases of exactly two iambic as his verse it most of all in the of the earlier as he to meters and on the metrical the metrical foot as a of the that a meter is a of more and syllables based on the rhythm of ordinary This be the most in the of metrical which by and his to can be in of meter by and for as well as in work on OE meter by and a poetic iambic an of the foot plausible at first because the way to metrical in this form is to from its The of permissible foot of the metrical foot with that stress is by the of linguistic and the of from and a in certain of iambic As it these a of words. is far from all metrical theory, we and the of an that no metrical theory so far to has that the meter of a line is the metrical by the metrical of the words in verse forms a of foot patterns, the constraints on us to metrical and alliterative meters of this kind meters the second of the first In of of the foot as a word is than I the “word from an on alliterative word-foot meters do not require a fixed but rules are so that they are very difficult to and for poetic two-word verses are of in and of with a or a and a system of scansion metrical to linguistic In metrical are and to linguistic requires Here I have to a more of metrical from linguistic the word-foot theory, scansion is a straightforward of linguistic to linguistic by the most this way of that of linguistic can a metrical that is much interesting work to be not in Old English but in metrical
Literary and dialect languages influence each other and, as a result, mutual enrichment occurs, in particular in botanical vocabulary. Comparison of folk and literary floristic names in the Ukrainian language reveals: common names for literary language and dialects (with phonetic, word-formative, semantic variants in dialects); common names with different lexical meanings; many words with a broader semantic structure in dialects; figurative meaning of words in dialects; the existence of different lexemes to describe the same object in floristics; numerous names in dialects are represented by synonymous pairs; the influence of the literary language on dialects, and as a result formation of duplicates (lexical, word-forming, phonetic); dialect words and meanings that are part of the literary-normative ones; specific dialect words not used in the literary language; words known only to older people which, even in the speech of representatives of the older generation, have moved to passive vocabulary; names that are represented by a word in a literary language, but in dialects – by a phrase or even descriptively. Dialect names reveal greater lexical, phonetic, word-forming, semantic variability. The mutual influence of the literary language and dialects contributes to the improvement of the norms of the literary language, and appears to be the basis for the development of the national language.
The article discusses the origin of auxiliary words and their division into lexical-semantic groups based on the meanings belonging to these words. It also discusses the role of spelling principles in writing auxiliary words; thus, the article focuses on the spelling of auxiliary words. In this respect, it is mentioned about the difficulties in spelling certain auxiliary words, despite the established spelling norms. The author refers to the fundamental works of renowned Turkologists in the field of grammar, and supports his arguments with examples taken from modern dictionaries on orthography. Evolutionary changes in a number of auxiliary words are highlighted. The main purpose of the article is a comprehensive analysis of auxiliary words and syllables, identifying problems associated with the spelling of these linguistic units and providing ways to solve them. Therefore, when writing the article, the author provides References to the fundamental works of famous Turkic scholars published in the field of grammar on each statement, relies on dictionary materials and argues his opinion. By describing the historical background of auxiliary names as auxiliary words and determining their grammatical and lexical meanings, their function in the language has been described. An overview of the differences between conjunctions in Kazakh linguistics and Turkology has also been shown,
The article examines the statements extracted from the Russian National Corpus with such predicatives as pora, vremya, rano, pozdno in combination with the infinitive. These statements combine the semantics of temporal evaluation and state, which is facilitated by the interaction of their lexical and grammatical elements. In the course of the work, it has been found that the predicates of the temporal evaluation are reflected in the dictionaries inconsistently and fragmentarily, that they have not received sufficient coverage in the scientific literature. As the result of the analysis based on the theory of categorical situations (A. V. Bondarko), the prerequisites for the realization of the values of the state and the temporal evaluation, their combination have been revealed. For the semantics of evaluation, it is important to have a gradation series, a relationship with the norm in the lexical meaning of predicates, the inclusion of an actional infinitive in the construction, two-subjectness (the subject of evaluation / perception and the subject of action), and the difference between modal-temporal plans. For the semantics of the state, signs of static, internal perceptual, uncontrollable, temporal limitedness of the ‘state of affairs’ have been noted, which are transmitted in impersonal-predicative constructions and actualized due to the lexical meaning of time in the words of the category of state. The differences from constructions that convey the semantics of a temporary state and from statements that represent an emotional evaluation have been fixed.
The notion of acoustic distance figures into many aspects of phonetics, including phonological neighborhoods. A measurement of word-level acoustic distance useful for cognitive modeling must account for two listener characteristics: sensitivity to acoustic differences and sensitivity to duration discrepancies between words. The present work used dynamic time warping to measure how acoustic distance accumulates between words over time. The results of a distance rating task with synthesized vowels were used as a basis for selecting a mathematical function that best matched listener sensitivities. Additionally, the results of a reminder task with synthesized vowels were used to determine a just noticeable difference threshold for vowel duration. The results suggested that a distance function based on the 4.5-norm using a 30 ms radius for dynamic time warping best matched human behavior. A third analysis used these dynamic time warping configurations to model reaction times in an auditory lexical decision task and found that Euclidean distance and no temporal constraints on dynamic time warping best matched human behavior. These results are discussed in relation to spoken word recognition models, including how to assess the acoustic match between the speech signal and a word in the lexicon.