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18265 papers
The article gives a general introduction to the form and function of the TEI header, points out some of the reasoning of the Text Documentation Committee that went into its design, and discusses some of its limitations. The TEI header's major strength is that it gives encoders the ability to document the electronic text itself, its source, its encoding principles, revisions, and characteristics of the text in an interchange format. Its bibliographical descriptions can be loaded into standard remote bibliographic databases, which should make electronic texts as easy to find for researchers as texts in other media, including print. Its major weakness is that it does not yet provide the ability for retrieval across texts in a networked environment, which users may want now or in the future.
This paper focusses on the types of questions that are raised in the encoding of historical documents. Using the example of a 17th century Scottish Sasine, the authors show how TEI-based encoding can produce a text which will be of major value to a variety of future historical researchers. Firstly, they show how to produce a machine-readable transcription which would be comprehensible to a word-processor as a text stream filled with print and formatting instructions; to a text analysis package as compilation of named text segments of some known structure; and to a statistical package as a set of observations each of which comprises a number of defined and named variables. Secondly, they make provision for a machine-readable transcription where the encoder's research agenda and assumptions are reversible or alterable by secondary analysts who will have access to a maximum amount of information contained in the original source.
For a decade or so, Liszt thrilled and astounded audiences at a time when virtuosity (often as an end in itself) was the norm and the piano had rapidly evolved into a form recognisable as a close relative of the instrument we know today. During this period Liszt frequently performed hisGrandes Etudes (1838), which he had developed from his boyhoodEtude en 12 exercices (1826) and which he later revised and technically simplified asEtudes d'Exécution transcendante (1851). Although Liszt's own performances cannot be recreated, procedures for generating electronic realizations, which contain nuances of balance and tempo, are described. All three versions of the eighth of Liszt's set of 12 studies are used for illustration. Contrary to received opinion, it is argued that the 1838 version is more satisfying than the 1851 revision and that this is due to its formal structure.
Metaphors have computable semantics. A program called NETMET both generates metaphors and produces partial literal interpretations of metaphors. NETMET is based on Kittay's semantic field theory of metaphor and Black's interaction theory of metaphor. Input to NETMET consists of a list of literal propositions. NETMET creates metaphors by finding topic and source semantic fields, producing an analogical map from source to topic, then generating utterances in which terms in the source are identified with or predicated of terms in the topic. Given a metaphor, NETMET utilizes if-then rules to generate the implication complex of that metaphor. The literal leaves of the implication complex comprise a partial literal interpretation.
The dramatically increased use of verbal report methodologies in psychological research has created a need for new tools to improve the efficiency and reliability of encoding these data. A computer-aided protocol encoding system called MPAS (Multiple Protocol Analysis System) presents individual protocol segments in a randomised order to one or more coders and then stores computer keyboard-entered codes for later output to an SPSS formatted data file. In the present paper, MPAS is described, and a brief example is provided of how MPAS can be used in a con-trolled laboratory study to rigorously analyze verbal protocol data.
This paper considers the problem of quantifying literary style and looks at several variables which may be used as stylistic “fingerprints” of a writer. A review of work done on the statistical analysis of “change over time” in literary style is then presented, followed by a look at a specific application area, the authorship of Biblical texts.
The primary objective of this project is to develop a robust, high-performance parser for English by automatically extracting a grammar from an annotated corpus of bracketed sentences, called the Treebank. The project is a collaboration between the IBM Continuous Speech Recognition Group and the University of Pennsylvania Department of Computer Sciences. Our initial focus is the domain of computer manuals with a vocabulary of 3000 words. We use a Treebank that was developed jointly by IBM and the University of Lancaster, England.
Both traditional and computerized scholars face problems when they attempt empirical research on women writers and women readers using currently available computational tools. This essay discusses some factors that have inhibited empirical research; it develops its examples from work in progress on 18th century English poetry and on reader responses. A number of large linguistic and text databases are almost useless for research on women writers because works by women are either not included or represented by easily accessible, rather than editorially clean, texts. Traditional and contemporary reader response studies are also insufficiently empirical for reasons of sexual bias or flaws in research design.
The Documentation Project is a cooperative project between Faculties of Arts in the Norwegian universities. It aims to produce “the Norwegian universities' databases for language and culture” from the paper-based archives at the participating institutions. The project has been active on a national basis since 1992. This paper describes the methodologies involved and ongoing subprojects.
In this paper, we outline the concept of a fuzzy class used in programs for eliciting computerized fuzzy ratings. Fuzzy ratings allow respondents to provide symmetrical or asymmetrical latitudes of acceptance around a preferred point. These ratings have been used in research testing career theories and person-environment fit models. The variables defining the fuzzy class and the various functions that can be performed by it are described in the paper. The idea of a fuzzy class may be of interest to those involved in expert systems, knowledge engineering, or in fuzzy classification and measurement in general. A program, FUZRATE, written in object-oriented C++ code that uses the concept of a fuzzy class, is available on request. Both source code and a binary (executable) file are available.
An automatic treebank conversion method is proposed in this paper to convert a treebank into another treebank. A new treebank associated with a different grammar can be generated automatically from the old one such that the information in the original treebank can be transformed to the new one and be shared among different research communities. The simple algorithm achieves conversion accuracy of 96.4% when tested on 8,867 sentences between two major grammar revisions of a large MT system.
Two experiments were undertaken to examine whether facial responses to odors correlate with the hedonic odor evaluation. Experiment 1 examined whether subjects (n = 20) spontaneously generated facial movements associated with odor evaluation when they are tested in private. To measure facial responses, EMG was recorded over six muscle regions (M. corrugator supercilii, M. procerus, M. nasalis, M. levator, M. orbicularis oculi and M. zygomaticus major) using surface electrodes. In experiment 2 the experimental group (n = 10) smelled the odors while they were visually inspected by the experimenter sitting in front of the test subjects. The control group (n = 10) performed the same experimental condition as those subjects participating in experiment 1. Facial EMG over four mimetic muscle regions (M. nasalis, M. levator, M. zygomaticus major, M. orbicularis oculi) was measured while subjects smelled different odors. The main findings of this study may be summarized as follows: (i) there was no correlation between valence rating and facial EMG responses; (ii) pleasant odors did not evoke smiles when subjects smelled the odors in private; (iii) in solitude, highly concentrated malodors evoked facial EMG reactions of those mimetic muscles which are mainly involved in generating a facial display of disgust; (iv) those subjects confronted with an audience showed stronger facial reactions over the periocular and cheek region (indicative of a smile) during the smelling of pleasant odors than those who smelled these odors in private; (v) those subjects confronted with an audience showed stronger facial reactions over the M. nasalis region (indicative of a display of disgust) during the smelling of malodors than those who smelled the malodors in private. These results were taken as evidence for a more social communicative function of facial displays and strongly mitigates the reflexive-hedonic interpretation of facial displays to odors as supposed by Steiner.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the possible role of facial musculature movement in the subjective experience of emotion. Nineteen nondemented, nondepressed patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease and 19 demographically matched control subjects were asked to rate valence and arousal dimensions after viewing emotionally laden slides. The patients with Parkinson's disease viewed one set of slides at their peak levodopa dose and one set of slides after at least a 12 hour abstention from their levodopa medication. Normal control subjects underwent two similar testing sessions, although no drug was administered. Mean valence and mean arousal ratings of slides within groups were determined. During the viewing of the slides, bilateral facial electromyographic activity in the zygomatic and corrugator muscle regions was recorded. EMG change scores relative to individual slide presentation were determined. Comparisons were made between and within groups of the mean valence, arousal, and EMG change scores relative to the slide valence type (i.e., positive, neutral, or negative slide content) and on/off drug condition. Results suggest that a subgroup of Parkinson's Disease patients experience similar emotional valence and arousal, to that of normal controls, when confronted with emotional visual stimuli. However, they display significantly less facial muscular movement in the zygomatic muscle region and somewhat less facial muscular movement in the corrugator region than the normal controls. Implications of these results are discussed relative to the James-Lange theory that posits emotional experience to be dependent upon a peripheral "feedback" system versus the Cannon-Bard theory that posits emotion to be mediated centrally. Although the present results lend support to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, future research is necessary to determine the role of the skin of the face (with blood and temperature components), rather than the facial musculature per se, in the subjective experience of emotion. It may be that the skin of the face and the sound of one's own voice (among other factors) play important roles in the subjective experience of emotion as posited by S. S. Tomkins. If so, a modified peripheral mediation theory of emotion would be supported.
The purpose of this article is to investigate observers' use of acoustic cues to arrive at judgments of the speaker's affective state and to address current methodological limitations. Ninety-nine female undergraduates rated the level of excitement, happiness, and anger of speech stimuli under three content-masking procedures: low-pass filtering, random splicing, and reiterant speech. Each procedure preserves some forms of acoustic information while disrupting or degrading others. As predicted, the content-masking procedures generated bias in observers' affective ratings. Results are discussed in terms of the efficacy of the content-masking procedures and implications for the study of acoustic cues to speaker affect.
We propose a lexical organisation for multilingual lexical databases (MLDB). This organisation is based on acceptions (word-senses). We detail this lexical organisation and show a mock-up built to experiment with it. We also present our current work in defining and prototyping a specialised system for the management of acception-based MLDB.
Abstract The aim of this chapter is to describe some of the tools which have been developed (or are being developed) in Pisa within several projects, and which can be conceived as different modules of a ‘lexicographic workstation’. The present integrated system is mainly based on two prototypes: a textual database system (DBI for ‘Data Base Testuale’: see Picchi 1983 and 1991) and a lexical database system (LDB: see Calzolari 1988).
Abstract Multiattribute theory is an important conceptual framework for assessing recreation choice. Methods of assessing attribute importance, varying in the amount of cueing they provide, can affect study results through context effects, attribute omission‐inclusion effects, and group rating effects. Attribute omission‐inclusion effects occur when important attributes are omitted or unimportant attributes are included on a list. Context effects may result when attributes are evaluated in the context of different sets. Group rating effects occur when respondents rate attributes that may or may not be salient to their decision. Three commonly used strategies of generating attributes—labeled the researcher‐generated, the modal salient beliefs, and the idio‐graphic methods, differing in their level of cueing, were compared. Results suggest that when different attribute sets are generated, omission‐inclusion effects can dramatically affect interpretation of findings. Context effects did not appear to influence attribute ratings. Group rating effects led to differences in valence ratings of some attributes. Use of different data collection strategies, varying in their level of cueing, would lead researchers to different conclusions about what was important to recre‐ationists in their site choices.
This paper presents a morphological analysis method for the Korean language. The characteristics and adjacency information of the words can be obtained from sentences in a large corpus. Generally a word can be analyzed to a result by applying the adjacency attributes and rules. However, we have to choose one from the several results for the ambiguous words. The collected morpheme's adjacency attributes and relations with neighbor words are recorded in a well designed dictionaries. With this information, abbreviated words as well as ambiguous words can be almost analyzed successfully. Efficiency of morphological analyzer depends on the information in the dictionaries. A morpheme dictionary and a phrase dictionary have been designed with lexical database, and necessary information extracted from the corpus is stored in the dictionaries.
OBJECTIVE: Psychological scaling techniques consistently produce separate ratings for sensory and affective components of pain. This study examines the relative contributions of these components to pain as a whole and the contributions of different emotions to the affective component of pain. DESIGN: The design was correlational. Visual analogue scales were used to quantify overall pain, sensory pain, affective pain, and individual emotions. These data lent themselves to regression techniques for expressing pain as a function of sensation and affect as a function of emotion types. SETTING: Data were collected at the Pain Clinic within the Department of Physical Medicine at the Ohio State University. PATIENTS: Subjects were 40 chronic pain sufferers admitted to an inpatient pain management program. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Ratings of overall pain were not a simple summation of sensory and affective ratings, but a linearly additive function of both component ratings each with a unique weighting. The affective component of pain was a function of three differentially weighted sets of emotions, anger, fear, and sadness being most salient. Implications arise for the broader assessment of chronic pain and the treatment of specific emotions that may be particularly associated with the pain.
본 논문은 형태소의 접속 특성과 대형 말뭉치(corpus)로부터 추출된 중의성 말마 디의 인접 정보를 이용해서 한국어 형태소 분석기를 구현한다. 일반적으로 말마디는 형태소의 접속 특성과 결합규칙을 적용함으로써 하나의 결과로 분석될 수 있으나 중 의성 말마디는 가능한 결과들로부터 적절한 하나를 선택하기 위해서 인접말마디 정보 나 문법 정보 또는 문맥 정보 등이 요구된다. 그러나 문법 정보와 문맥정보는 구문 분석과 의미분석 단계를 거쳐야만 가능하기 때문에 여기서는 표층적인 정보로서 인접 말마디 정보를 이용한 중의성 해결을 시도하였다. 형태소의 접속 특성과 중의성 말마 디의 인접 정보를 사전에 수록함으로써 축약어와 불필요한 결과를 제시하는 말마디 그리고 중의성 말마디까지도 형태소 분석이 거의 가능하게 된다. 본 분석기의 효능은 정확하고 풍부한 정보를 사전에 효율적으로 수록함으로써 이룩될 것이며, 이를 위해 형태소 사전과 말마디 사전을 데이타베이스로 설계하고, 필요한 정보 들을 대형 말뭉 치로부터 추출하여 사전에 저장한다. 【This paper presents a morphological analysis method for the Korean language. The characteristics and adjacency information of the words can be obtained from sentences in a large corpus. Generally a word can be analyzed to a result by applying the adjacency attributes and rules. However, we have to choose one from the several results for the ambiguous words. The collected morpheme's adjacency attributes and relations with neighbor words are recorded in a well designed dictionaries. With this information, abbreviated words as well as ambiguous words can be almost analyzed successfully. Efficiency of morphological analyzer depends on the information in the dictionaries. A morpheme dictionary and a phrase dictionary have been designed with lexical database, and necessary information extracted from the corpus is stored in the dictionaries.】
Assessing the impact of disease and treatment of the emotional state and temperament of preschool children has been limited by the lack of sensitive and objective measurement techniques. To construct such a measure for longitudinal use, a sample of 179 children with febrile seizures and 85 normal children were used to develop the Minnesota Preschool Affect Rating Scales (MN-PARS). Video-taped play sessions were a source of behaviorally anchored ratings on 12 scales. Factor analysis yielded three factors of Negative Affect, Positive Affect, and Self-regulation with additional individual scales of Dependency and Activity Level. These scales and factors yield reliable ratings, as measured by interrater agreement and split-half techniques, as well as initial evidence of concurrent validity. Although they were developed for measuring the behavioral effects of phenobarbital on children with febrile seizures, these scales provide an objective means of measuring emotional expression and self-regulation useful for other studies.
The Penn Treebank has recently implemented a new syntactic annotation scheme, designed to highlight aspects of predicate-argument structure. This paper discusses the implementation of crucial aspects of this new annotation scheme. It incorporates a more consistent treatment of a wide range of grammatical phenomena, provides a set of coindexed null elements in what can be thought of as "underlying" position for phenomena such as wh-movement, passive, and the subjects of infinitival constructions, provides some non-context free annotational mechanism to allow the structure of discontinuous constituents to be easily recovered, and allows for a clear, concise tagging system for some semantic roles.
The input and organization of terms play a central role in a dictionary-based translation system. The quality of the output text depends, for the most part, on the development of the dictionary. However, a lexical database cannot solve all problems of ambiguity. Moreover, it cannot take into account the effective usage of terms in specialized texts. This paper describes how terminology management is carried out in a machine-translation environment. We list a series of problems posteditors have to cope with and offer partial solutions to these problems. The material is based on work done in a translation firm where all translators are required to postedit machine translations.
Many projects are conducted to develop multilingual lexical databases. Some of these projects use an interlingual approach (KBMT-89, EDR,...), where others choose a bilingual approach (Multilex,...).
This paper describes a heuristic approach to automatically identifying which senses of a machinereadable dictionary (MRD) headword are semantically related versus those which correspond to fundamentally different senses of the word. The inclusion of this information in a lexical database profoundly alters the nature of sense disambiguation: the appropriate "sense" of a polysemous word may now correspond to some set of related senses. Our technique offers benefits both for on-line semantic processing and for the challenging task of mapping word senses across multiple MRDs in creating a merged lexical database.
We describe a series of three experiments in which supervised learning techniques were used to acquire three different types of grammars for English news stories. The acquired grammar types were: 1) context-free, 2) context-dependent, and 3) probabilistic context-free. Training data were derived from University of Pennsylvania Treebank parses of 50 Wall Street Journal articles. In each case, the system started with essentially no grammatical knowledge, and learned a set of grammar rules exclusively from the training data. Performance for each grammar type was then evaluated on an independent set of test sentences using Parseval, a standard measure of parsing accuracy. These experimental results yield a direct quantitative comparison between each of the three methods.
This study investigated the level of social valence and type of social behaviors expressed in 15 children with specific language impairment as they engaged in typical language intervention activities during conversation-based and imitation-based language programs. These programs were both applied to each child over a period of several weeks. Videotapes of treatment sessions were analyzed for the presence of five verbal and 11 nonverbal behaviors selected to measure social valence. In addition, the child's level of social valence was scored on a three-point rating scale. The results showed that although both types of treatments were predominantly associated with positive social valence ratings and a high frequency of smiling, laughing, and engagement in the activities, a significantly higher number of these positive ratings and behaviors were noted within conversation-based treatment. In contrast, although negative social valence ratings and expressions of boredom or dislike were very rare, these were observed more frequently under imitation-based treatment. There was a significantly higher rate of verbal initiations in the conversation-based treatment, and a significantly higher rate of quiet, passive participation in the imitation-based treatment. The findings are discussed in relation to treatment selection and viable strategies for assessing treatment acceptability in children.
The functional role of counterfactual thoughts ("might have been" reconstructions of the past) was explored in three laboratory experiments. Specifically, counterfactual thoughts were posited to serve two possible functions: an affective function (feeling better) and a preparative function (preparing for the future via avoiding the recurrence of negative events). It is argued that counterfactuals as a generic class of cognitions generally serve these two functions, but that specific types of counterfactuals may in particular do so. Two dimensions are described alone which counterfactuals may be classified: direction (upward vs downward) and structure (additive vs subtractive). Upward counterfactuals focus on an alternative that is better than reality, whereas downward counterfactuals focus on an alternative that is worse than reality. Additive counterfactuals focus on the addition of antecedent elements that were not present in the past, whereas subtractive counterfactuals focus on the deletion of antecedent elements that were present in the past.;In all three experiments, these two variables are manipulated, forming, along with self-esteem, 2 x 2 x 2 factorial designs. In Experiment 1, subjects recalled negative life events, generated counterfactuals, and rated their current affect. Direction but not structure influenced affect ratings, such that downward counterfactuals resulted in more positive affect than upward counterfactuals. In Experiment 2, subjects recalled a disappointing examination performance, generated counterfactuals, rated their current affect, and rated their intentions to perform success-facilitating behaviours. Again, direction but not structure influenced affect rating in their same manner as in Experiment 1. Direction but not structure also influenced intention ratings, such that upward counterfactual generation resulted in stronger intentions to perform success-facilitating behaviours. In Experimental 3, subjects engaged in a computer-administered anagram task. Although the affective effects were not significant, both direction and structure influenced performance: upward as well as additive counterfactual generation resulted in greater improvement on the anagram task.;These findings provide initial support for a functional theory of counterfactual thinking: people may strategically use downward counterfactuals to make themselves feel better (an affective function), and they may strategically use upward and additive counterfactuals to improve performance in the future (a preparative function). The present studies suggest that the mechanism underlying the preparative function represents a causal link from counterfactuals to intentions to overt behaviours. Implications for current theory and future research are considered.
The editions produced in the first three decades of the Cinquecento by Bembo, and by editors linked with him or the Aldine press, struck a balance between a tendency to steer all texts towards a uniformity based on Trecento Tuscan and on the other hand a respect for what the author originally wrote, even if this meant allowing a few archaisms or regionalisms to survive. A hierarchy of susceptibility to editorial change was established among the different linguistic categories: interventions are found most often in orthography and phonology, then in the area of morphology, and become gradually rarer in syntax, lexis and, where relevant, questions of metre. However, as one goes further from Bembo's influence, one finds less balance in Venetian editing between the normative approach and the conservative one, so that all aspects of ‘la scrittura’ become subject to the editor's pen. Sometimes this was because the texts concerned were much more strongly regional in character than, for instance, the Arcadia of 1504, as well as being of lesser literary stature. The kind of editing which took place in these cases was of particular linguistic significance because it helped to extend a norm to a wide range of writing. But, as we shall see, even texts such as those of Boccaccio could be radically rewritten. The problem was that, once such works were given the status of models, they then had to conform with the orthographical, grammatical and metrical rules and the lexical and stylistic ideals which they were thought, rightly or wrongly, to provide.
The main objective is to develop robust methods for the understanding and generation of both written and spoken human language, including but not limited to English. Penn is pursuing development of: (1) New mathematical and computational frameworks which are highly constrained, yet adequate to allow a simple, concise description of complex linguistic phenomena. These new frameworks are tested by the explicit encoding within each framework of a wide range of phenomena across a diverse set of human languages. (2) Both statistical and symbolic learning methods which automatically extract and effectively utilize the implicit linguistic knowledge in the Penn Treebank and the corpora of the Linguistic Data Consortium. These techniques have been tested against the performance of the best current methods.
We describe a generative probabilistic model of natural language, which we call HBG, that takes advantage of detailed linguistic information to resolve ambiguity. HBG incorporates lexical, syntactic, semantic, and structural information from the parse tree into the disambiguation process in a novel way. We use a corpus of bracketed sentences, called a Treebank, in combination with decision tree building to tease out the relevant aspects of a parse tree that will determine the correct parse of a sentence. This stands in contrast to the usual approach of further grammar tailoring via the usual linguistic introspection in the hope of generating the correct parse. In head-to-head tests against one of the best existing robust probabilistic parsing models, which we call P-CFG, the HBG model significantly outperforms P-CFG, increasing the parsing accuracy rate from 60% to 75%, a 37% reduction in error.
We describe a framework for vision processing (VP) which makes crucial use of a large lexical database which has been automatically derived from machine-readable dictionaries (MRDs). We suggest that MRDs encode much of the information about the physical and common-sense properties of objects needed for broad-coverage VP. Underlying this is the claim that organizing visual processing around a lexical database will allow for bidirectional mapping between images and linguistic descriptions of these images.
The validity effect is the increase in perceived validity of repeated statements. In the first experiment, subjects rated repeated and nonrepeated statements for validity, familiarity, and source recognition. Validity and familiarity were enhanced by repetition, but source dissociation was not. A path analysis suggested that familiarity mediates perceived validity. In Experiment 2, statements presented in a natural setting were later rated for perceived validity, familiarity, and source recognition. Repetition had parallel effects on validity and familiarity ratings, but source dissociation was unaffected. Controlling for familiarity statistically eliminated the validity effect. In Experiment 3, the effect of prior knowledge on validity judgments was studied. Subjects rated the validity of statements that were related or unrelated to their field of expertise. Those most knowledgeable about the topic were most likely to exhibit the validity effect. Overall, the results suggest that familiarity is the basis of judged validity.
The University of Delaware and the University of Dundee are collaborating on a project that is investigating the application of spatialization and spatial metaphors to interfaces for Augmentative and Alternative Communication. This paper outlines the project's motivation, goals, and methodological considerations. It presents a number of design principles obtained from a review of the HCI literature. Finally, it describes progress on the demonstration of this approach. This application called VAL provides a computer-based word board that retains spatial equivalence to the user's paper-based system. It also allows the user to access an extended lexicon through an interface to the WordNet lexical database.
I review evidence for the claim that syntactic ambiguities are resolved on the basis of the meaning of the competing analyses, not their structure. I identify a collection of ambiguities that do not yet have a meaning-based account and propose one which is based on the interaction of discourse and grammatical function. I provide evidence for my proposal by examining statistical properties of the Penn Treebank of syntactically annotated text.
This paper presents a method for constructing deterministic Prolog parsers from corpora of parsed sentences. Our approach uses recent machine learning methods for inducing Prolog rules from examples (inductive logic programming). We discuss several advantages of this method compared to recent statistical methods and present results on learning complete parsers from portions of the ATIS corpus. Introduction Recent approaches to constructing robust parsers from corpora primarily use statistical and probabilistic methods such as stochastic context-free grammars (Black et al., 1992; Pereira and Schabes, 1992). Although several current methods learn some symbolic structures such as decision trees (Black et al., 1993) and transformations (Brill, 1993), statistical methods still dominate. In this paper, we present a method that uses recent techniques in machine learning to construct symbolic, deterministic parsers from parsed corpora (treebanks). Specifically, our approach is implemented in...
552LANGUAGE, VOLUME 70, NUMBER 3 (1994) from the preceding chapters. It reports on the methodology followed in the construction of WordNet, a lexical database of English made up of 54,000 entries organized into some 48,000 sets of synonyms. Working on the premise that 'the mental lexicon is organized by semantic relations' (201), WordNet attempts to model this organization. Miller & Fellbaum describe some of the relevant semantic relations that hold between lexical items and between classes oflexical items, and argue that correspondences between meaning and syntactic category are far from arbitrary. In sum, L&CS provides an excellent introduction to contemporary work in lexical semantics. For those already engaged in this area of linguistic research, it offers valuable new insights and suggests many directions for future research. It would make an ideal reference text for a cognitive science course with language as an important focus. Each article is very clearly written (and has been carefully proofread) and would be accessible to students with only a basic knowledge of linguistic metalanguage. The volume contains a language index, a name index, and a subject index which facilitate the reader's task. REFERENCES Bowerman, Melissa. 1990. Mapping thematic roles onto syntactic functions: Are children helped by innate "linking rules"? Linguistics 28.1253-89. Gordon, Peter. 1985. Evaluating the semantic categories hypothesis: The case of the count/mass distinction. Cognition 20.209-42. Hale, Kenneth L. 1986. Notes on world view and semantic categories: Some Warlpiri examples. Features and projections, ed. by Pieter Muysken and Henk van Riemsdijk, 233-54. Dordrecht: Foris. Hopper, Paul J. and Sandra A. Thompson. 1980. Transitivity in grammar and discourse. Lg. 56.251-99. Vendler, Zeno. 1967. Linguistics in philosophy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Department of English[Received 8 February 1994.] The University of Queensland Brisbane, QId 4072 Australia Linguistic semantics. By William Frawley. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992. Pp. xvii, 533. Paper $39.95. Reviewed by Victor Raskin, Purdue University By 'linguistic semantics', Frawley means 'the study of literal, decontextualized, grammatical meaning' (1). Other scholars have referred to similar enterprises as 'grammatical semantics', 'syntactical semantics', or 'semantics of syntax'. I will use the first of these terms (GS) for no principled reason. F makes it very clear, actually even before (xiii) the very first sentence of the text partially quoted above, that GS is what the book is about. I think it would have been even better if this had been reflected in the title as well. This review is going to be 'external' in the sense that it is written by a semanticist who is not comfortable with dividing linguistic semantics into GS and the rest of it, let alone with defining that rest of it out of linguistics and into philosophy or some such place. But I believe I understand enough about where GSers REVIEWS553 are coming from to suggest that they may also be uncomfortable with F's slippage away from GS proper, both in his theory and in his examples throughout the book. The book is a very substantial enterprise. Its 500-plus pages are divided into ten chapters, each with its own summary. Many sections, subsections, and sometimes groups of subsections are summarized as well. I found myself reading those summaries first and then delving into the sections, so I wonder if these summaries would not have worked better as road-mapping prefaces. The first two chapters stand apart both in their relative brevity and in their content, which is general theory. The remaining eight chapters deal each with one facet of meaning, often corresponding to a lexical category or a grammatical feature. Ch. 1, 'Semantics and linguistic semantics: Toward grammatical meaning' (1-16), briefly defines the nature of F's enterprise as the study of overtly grammatically encoded meaning. As an example of what is included in and what is excluded from that meaning, the causative and inchoative meanings of kill as 'cause to become dead' are included, while 'death' is not. In Ch. 2, 'Five approaches to meaning' (17-61), F discusses meaning as reference, meaning as logical form, meaning as context and use, meaning as culture, and meaning as conceptual structure. Loosely paraphrased, these can be presented in a more...
With this double issue of Technostyle, we have produced a second publication in our new format to constitute both the Spring and Fall 1994 installments of the journal.After the delays that come with transition, we can now synchronize our publications with the calendar.This issue addresses a range of topics ofrelevance to our diverse readership: studies of the relationship between discourse and power (Hom), the status and nature of written genres (Beaudet, Russell), issues of standardization of linguistic norms (Bosse-Andrieu), and certain political dimensions ofieaching technical writing (LaDuc and Schryer).With this edition we are also introducing new dimensions to Technostyle.One of these is the inclusion of reprints of note-worthy articles that have been written by CA TTW members and published elsewhere.We are very pleased to reproduce for our readers two such publications: an analysis of semantic bypassing in medical literature by Jennifer Connor (with J.T.H. Connor), and a study ofreader/writer collaboration in usability testing by Karen Schriver.These scholars have both distinguished themselves in their respective fields.This issue also initiates a conversation about our professional organization: we have included a series of pieces on the history of CA TTW, a panel debate about future directions, and a paper by one of our early members (Jennifer Connor) that essentially takes stock of the organization and those issues that have emerged as CA TTW continues to grow and change.A third component is the renewal of a former Technostyle section for our readers' responses and concerns.This "Forum" page will appear in the Spring, 1995 issue (see our invitation for comments elsewhere in this issue).
In this paper we present preliminary results of investigating the structure of the Penn Treebank and how these results can be used in probabilistic parsing of English. Penn Treebank is a corpus of 4.9 million part-of-speech tagged words and 2.9 million words of skeletally parsed data developed by the University of Pennsylvania (see 8). By matching skeletal parse files with POS-tagged files we extract rules used to produce parses and count the number of occurrences of each rule. Consequently, we acquire a stochastic context-free grammar (SCFG), or a CFG with a probability attached to each rule. The grammar we acquired is used in a simple chart probabilistic parser. This parser is capable of parsing a few short sentences. However, the grammar is still too large to be used in a real-time parser, and intelligent reduction of the number of rules is needed. We propose to develop a methodology for processing the acquired grammar and discuss techniques we have considered. Our approach...
How educators and researchers define and study school effectiveness continues to be shaped by two divided camps. The policy mechanics attempt to identify particular school inputs, including discrete teaching practices, that raise student achievement. They seek universal remedies that can be manipulated by central agencies and assume that the same instructional materials and pedagogical practices hold constant meaning in the eyes of teachers and children across diverse cultural settings. In contrast, the classroom culturalists focus on the implicitly modeled norms exercised in the classroom and how children are socialized to accept particular rules of participation and authority, linguistic norms, orientations toward achievement, and conceptions of merit and status. It is the culturally constructed meanings attached to instructional tools and pedagogy that sustain this socialization process, not the material character of school inputs per se. This article reviews how these two paths of school-effects research are informed by work conducted within developing countries. First, we discuss the school’s aggregate effect, relative to family background, within impoverished settings. Second, we review recent empirical findings from the Third World on achievement effects from discrete school inputs. An emerging extension of this work also is reviewed: How input effects are conditioned by the social rules of classrooms. Third, we illustrate how future work in the policy-mechanic tradition will be fruitless until cultural conditions are taken into account. And the classroom culturalists may reach a theoretical dead end until they can empirically link classroom processes to alleged effects. We put forward a culturally situated model of school effectiveness—the implications of which are discussed for studying ethnically diverse schools within the West. By bringing together the strengths of these two intellectual camps, researchers can more carefully condition their search for school effects.
Previous research (Grant, 1990, 1992) suggests that the sex of the infant is linked to maternal dominance, although it is unclear from existing studies whether women have obtained higher dominance ratings merely as a consequence of already carrying a male foetus. In an effort to overcome this problem, self-report personality measures of dominance were completed by mothers of one- and two-year-old infants before they became pregnant again. In two independent studies (during 1983-84 and 1990-91), women who later conceived male infants scored significantly higher on dominance than those who later conceived female infants. The results of an analysis of all studies (N = 6) done on this topic (1969-91), are also presented, as are the results of an analysis of the four studies in which subjects were either not pregnant or were eight weeks pregnant or less. In both the combined analyses, those women who later bore sons were significantly more likely to have scored higher on the tests of dominance than those who later bore daughters (chi2 p <.0001).