Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
18265 papers
In order to better serve the international Chinese teaching, according to the sentence-based syntactic system and Chinese syntax structure characteristics, the paper builds a basic sentence-pattern instance database based on the international Chinese textbook Treebank. Based on the instance database, the paper adds an index for the predicate, and then extracts the relevant knowledge and information of predicate keywords. Finally, a certain amount of complex natural language sentences are converted into more instances with teaching values, which provide basic resources for international Chinese teaching.
WordNet-like lexical databases are used in many natural language processing tasks, such as word sense disambiguation, information extraction and sentiment analysis. The paper discusses the problem of querying such databases. The types of queries specific to WordNet-like databases are analysed and previous approaches that were undertaken to query wordnets are discussed. A query language which incorporates data types and syntactic constructs based on concepts that form the core of a WordNet-like database (synsets, word senses, semantic relations, etc.) is proposed as a new solution to the problem of querying wordnets.
Conference abstract: Recent years have seen the appearance of a new use of language in the French postcolonial novel: the French urban youth vernacular or francais contemporain des cites (FCC). This linguistic variety allows underprivileged youths from the banlieues to express their rebellion against the authorities by deliberately violating the norms of standard language. They consequently use lexical input from immigrant languages, in particular Arabic and English, verlan (a kind of coded backslang based on syllabic inversion) and an un-French pronunciation, in which the first rather than the last syllable is stressed. In view of the societal rejection of this non-standard variety, it has had difficulty penetrating literature. However, this is now beginning to change, with FCC appearing in a number of novels, mostly by young “beur” authors such as Faiza Guene, Mohammed Razane and Rachid Djaidani. Literary scholars might therefore consider broadening their scope to include this aspect, which until now has been almost exclusively studied in sociolinguistics. Moreover, now that the translation of some of these novels is called for, it is also becoming a relevant research topic in translation studies. The transfer of this genre does indeed raise a number of questions. For example, if we assume that translation is a “cultural political practice” (Venuti 2008, 19), which options do translators have to convey the resistant discourse of young immigrant slang users? In what way will the relationship between language use and social identity affect the target text? Is it possible to compensate for translation loss? And how are source and target texts received in their respective cultures? I will draw on a small corpus of French novels that have been partially translated into Dutch in an attempt to answer these questions.
L’histoire de la formalisation du droit du mariage dans l’Occident médiéval latin s’apparente à une succession de tensions normatives. Quoique les conflits de normes ne s’y limitent pas, les controverses théologiques et juridiques présentent l’intérêt d’avoir suscité l’expression de normes parfois contradictoires, suivant le for considéré. C’est spécialement le cas lorsqu’il s’agit de résoudre les difficultés judiciaires et morales liées à la hiérarchisation entre un mariage clandestin et un mariage public ou entre un mariage « présumé » dans l’« accouplement charnel suivi de paroles de futur » et un mariage par « paroles de présent ». Lequel de ces processus fait-il le « vrai » mariage? Et selon quel référent normatif? La diversité des solutions formulées par la doctrine canonique, la théologie, les manuels à l’usage des desservants de paroisse ou des confesseurs, ou encore les statuts synodaux, permet d’apprécier les différences d’objectifs des clercs concernés par la matière matrimoniale. L’enjeu importe, car il y va du salut des laïcs et de l’équilibre de la société tout entière. Ces tensions normatives ont parfois débouché sur des évolutions conceptuelles et lexicales, mais elles ont aussi donné lieu à des formes de concurrences susceptibles de déstabiliser les modes de régulation sociale, ce dont les acteurs du jeu matrimonial ont parfois su tirer profit.
Kelong is a kind of genre belongs to society in Maccasarese (Bantaeng) which is popular in Maccasarese culture and language background. Kelong is used as a kind of tool intended for increasing teaching and education social norms and values effectively in this writing, the writer will describe concerning expression of sense that expressed from ”Kelongs” that is still in use by the people of Bantaeng in wedding ceremony. Several of Kelong terms of wedding ceremony belonged to Bantaeng society are the any uttered at lekok caddi and marrital contract. In order to describe the sense contained in those Kelongs, lexical and gramatical senses analysis should be used.
Стаття присвячена дослідженню англо-американських запозичень-термінів сучасної німецької мови, а також дослідженню особливостей їх функціонування в мові та проблем, які вони створюють при перекладі. Звертається увага на сучасні підходи до дослідження прагматичного потенціалу як самого політичного тексту так і використання запозичень англо-американського походження. (This article deals with the Anglo-american loan words, the terms in the modern german language and scientific researches of their functioning and the problems by their translate. Terminus is the lexical unit, it plays special functions. For analysis of termini are used semiotical/ terminological methods. All components of structure must be studied. The study of terms, the formation of which is attributed as extralinguistics factors and structural-linguistic norms assumes the duties of the structural-semantic analysis of these unit. To research the content structure of the term important all the elements of this scheme. You should start with a consideration of the meaning of the term, that is, the value of the lexical units serving in the term, if it has such a function. It can be argued that in this case the lexical unit has the nomìnativne value, it directly calls a special concept, which corresponds to the term. Complex terms form the main arsenal of the nominative means terminology elektrovimìrûval′noï technique. The model of complex terms shall be constructive function plays the ratio between turns.)
In this article, four Buryat complex constructions denoting alternatives and preferences (cf. Eng. rather than and instead of) are analyzed. Three of these are mono-finite (two are formed on the basis of the converb in -nxaar and one on the basis of a participle with the postposition orondo), one is bi-finite (with the dependent predicate in the optative introduced by a special form of the auxiliary verb of speech ge-). Their structural analysis is combined with a semantic analysis based on the following parameters: a) typical forms of the main predicate (the oppositions between indicative, imperative and irrealis forms);b) their effects: readings of the whole as a potential choice in the future (imperatives) or an unrealized choice in the past (indicative, irrealis), distribution of real / irreal interpretation between events of the main and dependent clause (e.g. the main clause in irrealis suggests the reality of the dependent clause event), and possible evaluative readings (likely positive evaluation of the main clause event in the case of the imperative, as something that is recommended, or of the dependent clause event in the case of the indicative);c) existence / absence of evaluative semantics on the construction level, their distribution between the clauses (e.g. the fixed negative evaluation of the dependent clause event with -nxaar, fixed positive evaluation of the dependent clause event with optative + ge- as compared to the evaluative neutrality of orondo);d) the character of the alternative, i. e. a concrete event compared with another such or with the social norm / expectation;e) possible lexical restrictions.
Cette étude propose d’analyser le point de vue des automobilistes sur la circulation inter-files (CIF) des deux-roues motorisés (2RM). Jamais questionnés jusqu’alors sur ce comportement typique 2RM, c’est pourtant une pratique qui les implique du point de vue opératoire, bien qu’ils n’en soient pas à l’initiative. Pour cela, soixante entretiens semi-directifs auprès d’automobilistes choisis en fonction de 3 critères (ville de mobilité, ancienneté du permis de conduire B et pratique ou non du 2RM) ont été conduits et ont permis de recueillir un corpus lexical riche d’informations. Ce corpus a fait l’objet d’une analyse informatisée grâce au logiciel ALCESTE. Les résultats de cette analyse fine soulignent, entre autres, l’importance de l’expertise des individus dans le domaine du 2RM et l’importance du contexte de circulation et des normes sociales s’y référant sur la pratique et les attitudes vis-à-vis de la CIF.
The issue of determining the components of the language and communicative competence of studentsfuture professionals of forestry is considered. The relevance of the study is determined by the need for forming the proper level of professionally oriented language and communicative abilities and skills in students majoring in forestry. The aim of the article is to identify and describe the components needed to build an effective model of the formation of students' language and communicative competence. The following main components of it are named and described: linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic. The orthoepic, orthographic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic competencies were distinguished within the linguistic component. Value-semantic and socio-cultural competencies are the content of the sociolinguistic component. The pragmatic component consists of terminological, speech text, culture and language, lexicographic competencies. The speech text component, in its turn, is divided into text-interpreting and text-creating ones. The required level of the professional language and communicative competence of student majoring in forestry can be formed under the condition of the development of his/her language and communicative professionally oriented skills. The basic skills are the following: the choice of the language means depending on the conditions of communication in different styles and genres; reasonable use of language means (including terms) according to the norms of modern Ukrainian standard language; building texts of different genres of scientific and educational substyle belonging to the style of scientific prose; effective communication when performing professional activities. The parallel development of a student's environmental and professional competences we consider as another condition for the formation of the proper level of the language and communicative competence of a studentfuture professional of forestry industry. The formation of language and communicative competence will facilitate the increase of the level of general competencies of students majoring in forestry, in particular: the ability to communicate in the official language both orally and in writing; the ability to study and master modern profession-related knowledge; the ability for search, processing and analysis of the information from different sources.
In this paper and the associated system demo, we present an advanced search system that allows to perform a joint search over a (bilingual) valency lexicon and a correspondingly annotated linked parallel corpus. This search tool has been developed on the basis of the Prague Czech-English Dependency Treebank, but its ideas are applicable in principle to any bilingual parallel corpus that is annotated for dependencies and valency (i.e., predicate-argument structure), and where verbs are linked to appropriate entries in an associated valency lexicon. Our online search tool consolidates more search interfaces into one, providing expanded structured search capability and a more efficient advanced way to search, allowing users to search for verb pairs, verbal argument pairs, their surface realization as recorded in the lexicon, or for their surface form actually appearing in the linked parallel corpus. The search system is currently under development, and is replacing our current search tool available at http://lindat.mff.cuni.cz/services/CzEngVallex, which could search the lexicon but the queries cannot take advantage of the underlying corpus nor use the additional surface form information from the lexicon(s). The system is available as open source.
The article gives a description and assessment of non-normative linguistic facts (misprints, typo errors, violations of the lexical rules) operating in the street space of Omsk and collected as part of a student project designed to improve the ecology of the city speech. On the basis of numerical calculations were obtained the data on three unstable sites of modern spelling rules. Revealed a wide range of blunders. It was concluded that the culture of street speech communication, which is media for the type of recipient, is being formed by native speakers with low literacy. Presented and commented on the results of the survey, the purpose of which was to study the perception of texts with a misprint, a typo error, a slang term by residents of Omsk and the Omsk region. Results of the survey show that norm violations were fixed by informants in proportion to the degree of how gross the mistakes are and give them the desire to correct the text. The latter point supports the position of the normative view of the language.
Depending on the methodological choices made by the lexicographer, a lexical entry may vary considerably between dictionaries. Analyzing the treatment of diatopic variation comparing Portuguese and French dictionaries, one can distinguish at least three types of treatment: the description can be based i) on the maximal extension of the language, ii) on geographically limited extension of the language, Brazil, for example, or iii) on an abstract norm which is not perceived in terms of geographical extension but in terms of shared linguistic stock.
Study 3 Image Rating Support for Welfare
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This paper describes the SimpleNLG-IT realiser, i.e. the main features of the porting of the SimpleNLG API system The paper gives some details about the grammar and the lexicon employed by the system and reports some results about a first evaluation based on a dependency treebank for Italian. A comparison is developed with the previous projects developed for this task for English and French, which is based on the morpho-syntactical differences and similarities between Italian and these languages.
Students training to become translators are usually taught that there are a number of strategies other than literal translation that professional translators employ to transfer meanings from one language to another. One such strategy is simply to borrow words from the source language. There are times when loans are used simply because the target language does not have a word for a culture-specific item that is expressed lexically in the source language, but loans can also be employed deliberately, to convey a foreign flavour to the translation. In order to help translators decide whether the use of loans is appropriate in a given context, it is essential that they be given a translation brief. Knowledge of the target readership and of the purpose of the translation will allow the translator to make informed decisions regarding the appropriateness of employing words that are foreign to the target language. However, there does not seem to be much discussion among translation scholars of the fact that the use of loan words is not a prerogative of translational language. Texts that are not translations may also contain loans, which means translators are sometimes confronted with the presence of foreign words in source texts. Yet little has been written about the relationship between loan words in source texts and translations. How different are translations from source texts in their use of loan words? Are there more loans in translational or non-translational language? What loan languages are used? To what extent do translators preserve loans when they encounter them in source texts? And what happens to source-text loans that have been borrowed from the target translation language? Without the help of a corpus, any attempt to answer questions such as these systematically would be practically impossible. Using a bidirectional parallel corpus of Portuguese and English, the present study compares the use of loan words in translated and non-translated fiction, and investigates the shifts that occur from source to target text in relation to the use of loans. The analysis focuses on the frequency and on the language distribution of loans utilized in a corpus of Portuguese and English literary texts published from 1975 onwards. The results indicate that comparable Portuguese and English literary traditions contrast quite substantially in this respect, and that despite the fact that professional translators seem to be guided by similar norms when working from Portuguese into English and from English into Portuguese, the resulting translations can read very differently.
The speech of Bandurovo village (Hayvoron district, Kyrovograd region) belongs to the south-west dialect of Ukrainian language. The author aimed to describe village dialect and to characterize it on different levels of Ukrainian language. Phonetic, morphologic and lexical-semantic dialect peculiarities, which distinguish it from the norms of modern Ukrainian language are also described. Phonetic and morphologic features in general inherent to the dialects of Eastern Podillya are supplemented by those which have not get occurred by researches and which are characterizing dialects of Eastern Podillya. Special attention is paid to the lexical-semantic level of the dialect. Lexical tokens, which are specific for investigated dialect, are represented. Peculiarities of the village dialect are demonstrated as exemplified by agricultural vocabulary. Some names related to gardening are considered. Found out which sorts have and which parts consist of potatoes, cucumbers, tomatoes, beets, radishes, carrot, garlic, pumpkins, watermelons and cantaloupes. These garden plants are extremely common in the village and in neighbouring residential places. Variety of sorts of these plants are mainly devided by color, shape, time of sowing and geographical origin. In the village dialect existing nomens indicating garden plants which are peculiar for Ukrainian literary language and those which are different from the norm. Some of these words are coincided with vocabulary of other dialects.
Participant attentiveness is a concern for many researchers using Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk). Although studies comparing the attentiveness of participants on MTurk versus traditional subject pool samples have provided mixed support for this concern, attention check questions and other methods of ensuring participant attention have become prolific in MTurk studies. Because MTurk is a population that learns, we hypothesized that MTurkers would be more attentive to instructions than are traditional subject pool samples. In three online studies, participants from MTurk and collegiate populations participated in a task that included a measure of attentiveness to instructions (an instructional manipulation check: IMC). In all studies, MTurkers were more attentive to the instructions than were college students, even on novel IMCs (Studies 2 and 3), and MTurkers showed larger effects in response to a minute text manipulation. These results have implications for the sustainable use of MTurk samples for social science research and for the conclusions drawn from research with MTurk and college subject pool samples.
Stemming is a process of reducing a derivational or inflectional word to its root or stem by stripping all its affixes. It is been used in applications such as information retrieval, machine translation, and text summarization, as their pre-processing step to increase efficiency. Currently, there are a few stemming algorithms which have been developed for languages such as English, Arabic, Turkish, Malay and Amharic. Unfortunately, no algorithm has been used to stem text in Hausa, a Chadic language spoken in West Africa. To address this need, we propose stemming Hausa text using affix-stripping rules and reference lookup. We stemmed Hausa text, using 78 affix stripping rules applied in 4 steps and a reference look-up consisting of 1500 Hausa root words. The over-stemming index, under-stemming index, stemmer weight, word stemmed factor, correctly stemmed words factor and average words conflation factor were calculated to determine the effect of reference look-up on the strength and accuracy of the stemmer. It was observed that reference look-up aided in reducing both over-stemming and under-stemming errors, increased accuracy and has a tendency to reduce the strength of an affix stripping stemmer. The rationality behind the approach used is discussed and directions for future research are identified.
Halliday’s concept of ‘anti-language’ has been applied to a number of African Urban Youth Languages (AUYLs) in recent literature. Halliday described the concept of antilanguage as a language generated by an ‘anti-society’ which is set up as a conscious alternative to established societal norms. Anti-language, then, is a conscious alternative to the language of the wider society and it distinguishes itself primarily through relexicalization (the principle of same grammar, different vocabulary) and metaphor. Halliday states that in an anti-language, metaphor goes ‘all the way up and down the system’ – that an anti-society is a metaphorical variant of society, an anti-language is a metaphor for an everyday language, and the language itself employs metaphorical variants to distinguish it, including phonological metaphors, grammatical metaphors (morphological, lexical, and syntactic) and semantic metaphors. This article presents natural speech data from a multi-sited research project in South Africa, in order to analyze the use of metaphor in tsotsitaal – the South African AUYL used amongst peers in South Africa’s townships. The analysis considers how metaphor is used at three different levels – the level of lexical items; phrases; and social structure. Processes of innovation and creativity will be described, and the article will evaluate the use of the term anti-language to describe tsotsitaal (and, by implication, other AUYLs). The?ndings suggest that the term is a useful one to understand the metaphorical processes in AUYLs, but that it needs to be cautiously applied.
People learn language from their social environment. As individuals differ in their social networks, they might be exposed to input with different lexical distributions, and these might influence their linguistic representations and lexical choices. In this article we test the relation between linguistic performance and 3 social network properties that should influence input variability, namely, network size, network heterogeneity, and network density. In particular, we examine how these social network properties influence lexical prediction, lexical access, and lexical use. To do so, in Study 1, participants predicted how people of different ages would name pictures, and in Study 2 participants named the pictures themselves. In both studies, we examined how participants’ social network properties related to their performance. In Study 3, we ran simulations on norms we collected to see how age variability in one’s network influences the distribution of different names in the input. In all studies, network age heterogeneity influenced performance leading to better prediction, faster response times for difficult-to-name items, and less entropy in input distribution. These results suggest that individual differences in social network properties can influence linguistic behavior. Specifically, they show that having a more heterogeneous network is associated with better performance. These results also show that the same factors influence lexical prediction and lexical production, suggesting the two might be related.
Images play an important role in the representation and acquisition of specialized knowledge. Not surprisingly, terminological knowledge bases (TKBs) often include images as a way to enhance the information in concept entries. However, the selection of these images should not be random, but rather based on specific guidelines that take into account the type and nature of the concept being described. This paper presents a proposal on how to combine the features of images with the conceptual propositions in EcoLexicon, a multilingual TKB on the environment. This proposal is based on the following: (1) the combinatory possibilities of concept types; (2) image types, such as photographs, drawings and flow charts; (3) morphological features or visual knowledge patterns (VKPs), such as labels, colours, arrows, and their effect on the functional nature of each image type. Currently, images are stored in association with concept entries according to the semantic content of their definitions, but they are not described or annotated according to the parameters that guided their selection, which would undoubtedly contribute to the systematization and automatization of the process. First, the images included in EcoLexicon were analyzed in terms of their adequateness, the semantic relations expressed, the concept types and their VKPs. Then, with these data, guidelines for image selection and annotation were created. The final aim is twofold: (1) to systematize the selection of images and (2) to start annotating old and new images so that the system can automatically allocate them in different concept entries based on shared conceptual propositions.
We present a study on two key characteristics of human syntactic annotations: anchoring and agreement. Anchoring is a well known cognitive bias in human decision making, where judgments are drawn towards pre-existing values. We study the influence of anchoring on a standard approach to creation of syntactic resources where syntactic annotations are obtained via human editing of tagger and parser output. Our experiments demonstrate a clear anchoring effect and reveal unwanted consequences, including overestimation of parsing performance and lower quality of annotations in comparison with human-based annotations. Using sentences from the Penn Treebank WSJ, we also report the first systematically obtained inter-annotator agreement estimates for English syntactic parsing. Our agreement results control for anchoring bias, and are consequential in that they are \emph{on par} with state of the art parsing performance for English. We discuss the impact of our findings on strategies for future annotation efforts and parser evaluations.
Language Education in the Caribbean opens with a preface highlighting Craig’s proactive social engagement through a discussion of his popular Viewpoint columns written for the Guyana Broadcasting Company and an introduction outlining the main concerns of his academic publications. It then reprints four of his articles dealing with the socio-linguistic context of the English-official Caribbean and four focusing on effective teaching and learning policies and approaches for this context. With respect to the first issue, Craig echoes the creole continuum perspective and argues that the English-official Caribbean is characterized by variation between Standard English and local creoles resulting from creole speakers’ “striving for social status through English” (p. 17) and inappropriate teaching methods. This has given rise to a third system, the “interaction area” (p. 17) or the mesolect(s); children from creole dominant homes mistakenly equate it with English and thus face problems in school where Standard English norms are enforced. Craig argues that all three varieties share the same conceptual base but make use of different grammatical principles and lexical forms to express it. The creole and creole-influenced varieties (or mesolects) mostly share the same grammar and mainly differ on the lexical level. Thus shifting simply entails substituting English-like lexical forms for creole ones. However, since there are significant structural differences between the creole and English forms, acquisition of English requires learning of a set of new procedures, rules, and principles.
У статті розглянуто тестові завдання з культури мови в сертифікаційній роботі з української мови і літератури національного зовнішнього незалежного оцінювання. З’ясовано їх ню кількість, тематику та причини складності таких завдань; накреслено шляхи подолання негативної ситуації. Ключові слова: культура мови, тестове завдання, складність тестового завдання, акцентологічні норми мови, лексичні норми мови, граматичні норми мови. В статье проанализированы тестовые задания по культуре речи, представленные в сертификационной работе по украинскому языку и литературе национального внешнего независимого тестирования. Определено их количество, причины сложности таких заданий и поданы рекомендации по изменению негативной ситуаци и. Ключевые слова: культура речи, тестовое задание, сложность тестового задания, акцентологические нормы языка, лексические нормы языка, грамматические нормы языка. The article analyzes the tests in the certification work with the Ukrainian language and literature of the independent external evaluation (further – IEE). To set purpose implies fulfillment of the following tasks: to find out the reasons for the complexity of these tasks; to outline ways to overcome this situation. The issues of language culture testing have been already represented from the beginning of its introduction in 2008. It mainly tests with the choice of a correct answer from four or five proposed. Gradually the number of tasks increases. Statistical indicators of fulfillment tests with the language culture suggests that they never fall into the category of «light», especially «very easy» for complexity. Analysis of the psychometric indexes of tests in the national testing allows to do the following conclusions: – almost equal distribution of answers of participants testing on some tests indicates about a «blind» guessing, not on solid knowledge of graduates. The Ukrainian language skills have not been formed in the pupils because adults, which speech uses pupils barely follow the linguistic regime in the school; – the most difficult are traditionally tests from accentual (emphasis of words), lexical (knowledge of lexical meaning; pleonasm), morphological (refer to time; coordination nouns with numerals, use of prepositions, respect for rules government) and syntactic (violation of communication with those pronouns according to which they point; misconstruction sentences with participial and adverbial-participial constructions) norms of modern Ukrainian language; – participants can not cope with test tasks that require knowledge of lexical meanings of words, rules and principles of control clauses in Ukrainian; – need to reallocate hours of language learning in the senior class taking into account the hours in preparation for the IEE. Key words: culture language, test task, the complexity of the test tasks, accentual norms of language, lexical norms of language, grammatical norms of language.
The noun Undtagelse is derived from the verb undtage (to exclude, deny, take away), and ultimately from the Old Norse undan taka. The lexical meaning refers to something or someone excluded or not counted, more specifically, that which is excluded from a definition or rule. Additionally, it means a deviation from the norm, a rare case, or something not usually encountered in everyday experience.1
This paper is mainly about the BIT group submitted system to the IALP-2016 Shared Task. This system is to automatically acquire the valence-arousal ratings of Chinese affective words. Two ways are designed to generate a given word's VA: one is based on Synonym Lexicons and the other is based on Word Embeddings. For the first way, we extend the annotated set based on synonym lexicon to improve coverage of unknown words, and then search test words or characters split from unknown words in extended annotated set. For the second way, we broaden the words coverage by building a local words segmentation lexicon in the vector space model. The cosine similarity is used to measure the distance between the test word and the annotated word. According to the experimental results, the strategy based on the synonym lexicons is better than the one based on the word embeddings, and makes our group in upper grades among 20 teams approximately.
The article considers commercial urbanonyms, that is, the names of cafйs, restaurants, shops, residential complexes and other urban facilities, which may give rise to conflict situations in the society, cause a negative reaction of some citizens or a particular social group, as well as provoke a clash of interests of the rights holders. The article reveals the capabilities of naming examination (a new kind of forensic linguistic examination a new kind of forensic linguistic expertise arising at the intersection of linguistics, law, onomastics and forensic expertology) in identifying factors of urbanonyms’ conflictogenity, negative semantics of names, semantic and lexical ambiguity of urbanonyms, violation of the spelling or grammatical norm in the title, the use the vernacular language, jargon, slang expressions, professionalisms, borrowings (including barbarisms), incorrect use of precedent names.
T. S. Eliot's earliest verse is composed of observations, detached, ironic, and alternatively disillusioned and nostalgic in tone. Eliot's mingling of subtle observation with unexpected cliché represents a difficulty that is often magnified because too much 'obscurity' is assumed. This paper aims at clarifying the 'obscurity' by means of a stylistic analysis of the linguistic devices that the poet used to create "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" and its intended meaning. Adopting the concept of style as 'foregrounding', the idea that style is constituted by departures from linguistic norms, it analyzes the poem in terms of its lexical foregrounding, and adopting the concept of style as 'choice', the idea that style is constituted by choices of linguistic devices, it analyzes the poem in terms of its syntactic choices. It claims that it is the systematic foregrounding or violation of the norm of the standard which makes possible the poetic utilization of language. Without seeing foregrounding as a poet's linguistic device, there could be no poetry for the poet or no possible understanding of poems for the reader. It also claims that stylistically significant syntactic choices by the poet serve effectively the intended meaning.
In this paper, we first analyze the semantic composition of word embeddings by cross-referencing their clusters with the manual lexical database, WordNet. We then evaluate a variety of word embedding approaches by comparing their contributions to two NLP tasks. Our experiments show that the word embedding clusters give high correlations to the synonym and hyponym sets in WordNet, and give 0.88% and 0.17% absolute improvements in accuracy to named entity recognition and part-of-speech tagging, respectively.
The aim of this study is to explore vocabulary used by representatives of different social classes. This objective involves the following tasks: consideration of the concepts of norm and social class; consideration functions of various layers of language used in different situations; identification the types of word's connotation in the speech of main characters; analysis of selection of language means in the speech of people who belong to different social classes. The level of scientific development is formed by the theoretical basis of scientific papers, giving a broad concept of class rules, and what they include, as well as involving consideration of lexical units of the language and stylistic means of expressiveness. The object of this study is the image of various social classes of the British society. The subject of the research are lexical stylistic means of creating this image in the cinema. The purpose of the study is to highlight the lexical-stylistic means, which are used to create the image of the representatives of the various classes of society on the material selected four films of different years of release and see how linguistic patterns have been changing over time.
Abstract Over the decades there have been discussions regarding the ownership and definition of texts written for children. The paper discusses the term "childlike language" as the one distinguished from other types of language through its connection to the image of a child and children's culture, but generated by adults. Accordingly, childlike language is marked by a distinct deviation/aberration from the norm and is produced by adult authors who often engage in literary experimentation and exhibit a propensity for identifying with their child audience. In their strong association with the "semiotic", as defined by Julia Kristeva, denoting the prosody and sound of language, such literary works for children exhibit deviant nature linguistically/lexically, phonetically, semantically, orthographically, and grammatically through their use of neologisms, word play, sound patterns, hyperbole, nonsense, and other stylistic and structural elements. Therefore, authors for children express their childlike nature by means of language which defies common rules, challenges status quo, and which results in playfulness, humor, subversiveness and grotesque. For this purpose, the research focuses on the examples of popular works by children's authors belonging to the English-speaking literary tradition, such as Roald Dahl, Dr. Seuss, A. A. Milne, J. R. R. Tolkien, J. K. Rowling, Edward Lear, Lewis Carroll, J. M. Barrie and others, in order to detect and illustrate the categories of childlike language. However, though the analysis will stick to its designated focus, the childlike expression is universal regardless of age and location. It is a source of freedom and divergent thinking, it makes us want to read, and it lets us grow up to be very powerful people. Key words: children's culture and literature; humor; nonsense; the semiotic; word play.---Sažetak O definiciji i autorstvu tekstova pisanih za djecu raspravlja se već desetljećima. U izlaganju će se govoriti o pojmu "djecolikoga jezika" kao jezika koji se razlikuje od ostalih vrsta izričaja svojom povezanošću s pojmom djeteta i dječjom kulturom, no čiji su izvor odrasli. U skladu s tim djecoliki se jezik odlikuje izrazitim odstupanjem/zastranjivanjem od norme, a stvaraju ga odrasli autori koji pokazuju naklonost prema književnom eksperimentiranju te se često poistovjećuju sa svojom dječjom publikom. Povezanošću sa "semiotičkim" oblikom jezika kako ga definira Julia Kristeva, a koji se odnosi na prozodiju, zvuk i melodiju jezika, takva djela dječje književnosti ukazuju na devijantnost lingvističkih/leksičkih, fonetičkih, semantičkih, pravopisnih, gramatičkih i ostalih stilskih i strukturnih elemenata, specifičnu uporabu neologizama, igru riječi, glasovne figure, hiperbole, nonsense. Na taj način autori tekstova za djecu stvaraju posebnu vrstu izričaja jezikom koji se opire standardnim pravilima i ne trpi status quo, a čiji su rezultat zaigranost, humor, subverzivnost i groteska. Sa svrhom određivanja i opisivanja kategorija djecolikoga jezika ovo se istraživanje bavi primjerima popularne dječje književnosti autora engleskoga govornog područja kao što su Roald Dahl, Dr. Seuss, A. A. Milne, J. R. R. Tolkien, J. K. Rowling, Edward Lear, Lewis Carroll, J. M. Barrie i drugi. Iako analiza primarno obraća pozornost na primjere specifičnoga govornog područja, djecoliki je jezik univerzalan bez obzira na dob ili područje. On je izvor slobode i divergentnoga mišljenja, potiče nas da čitamo i omogućava nam da izrastemo u vrlo moćne ljude. Ključne riječi: dječja kultura; humor; igra riječima; neologizam; nonsens; semiotičko.
The access of women in all fields of activity has provoked fierce linguistic polemics on feminisation of names of professions which has represented a wide range of linguistic investigations in France and in many French-speaking countries such as Canada, Belgium and Switzerland.This paper aims to examine the manifestation of the process of feminisation of names of professions in the French press, in other words, to observe how feminisation of names of professions in the French written media discourse is applied, knowing the fact that the press represents a favourable environment in which two areas conjugate, namely, society and linguistics. Therefore, this study is part of a sociolinguistic framework and will follow two approaches, one regulatory, related to linguistic habits and the other, innovative, revealed by the actual language-based practices that concern the visibility of women on the linguistic level.This micro research is justified by the assumption already advanced that the media has a very important role in the enrichment of languages, accompanying the evolution of the society by familiarizing the readers with new forms denoting new realities, thereby facilitating their further use.The objectives of this study are the study in the French press of the feminine forms used to designate women, comparing these forms to those indicated in the feminization guides and the Dictionary of the French Academy, which is the linguistic norm. The second part of the study is dedicated to analysing the procedures used to create the feminine form, in case of finding a lexical variation, but also explaining the factors favouring the option of using a form or another.Keywords: French, sociolinguistics, feminisation, names of profession.
The proposed paper details a contrastive interlanguage analysis (i.e. Granger, 1996) of metalinguistic features of certainty and doubt including 'hedges' and 'boosters' (following Hyland, 2000) and 'epistemic stance nouns' (Jiang, 2015) in a 350,000 word corpus of L2 written essays and reports collected at three data points (pre-training, post-training and final assessment) during a 6-credit mandatory freshmen English for academic purposes (EAP) course. The paper explores to what extent freshman undergraduate students are more or less certain in their treatment of theirs' or others' claims via the linguistic devices used prior to their EAP training, and what happens to their use of these linguistic devices as a result of their EAP training. Data was collected from 87 participants spread across five classes with the same participants submitting data at each data point. The results suggest significant impacts of time and task-type on the normalised frequencies and individual wordings of hedging and boosting devices, with pre-training data suggesting significantly more overt hedging and boosting devices used than in the final assessment data and with more epistemic nouns used post-training, and with differences in frequencies and wordings of individual devices across essay and report task types. The longitudinal trend in particular is characterised by a reduction in the use of modals for hedging (‘May’, ‘Would’ etc.) and an increase in lexical means, and a drop in categorical/assumption based statements (‘Undeniably’, ‘Obviously’) to a more academic tone. These findings suggest a positive effect of EAP training on L2 writer’s presentation of their stance on their own or others’ claims, towards the linguistic norms of an academic register.
In the present electroencephalographical study, we asked to which extent executive control processes are shared by both the language and motor domain. The rationale was to examine whether executive control processes whose efficiency is reinforced by the frequent use of a second language can lead to a benefit in the control of eye movements, i.e. a non-linguistic activity. For this purpose, we administrated to 19 highly proficient late French-German bilingual participants and to a control group of 20 French monolingual participants an antisaccade task, i.e. a specific motor task involving control. In this task, an automatic saccade has to be suppressed while a voluntary eye movement in the opposite direction has to be carried out. Here, our main hypothesis is that an advantage in the antisaccade task should be observed in the bilinguals if some properties of the control processes are shared between linguistic and motor domains. ERP data revealed clear differences between bilinguals and)
People in Western cultures are poor at naming smells and flavors. However, for wine and coffee experts, describing smells and flavors is part of their daily routine. So are experts better than lay people at conveying smells and flavors in language? If smells and flavors are more easily linguistically expressed by experts, or more “codable”, then experts should be better than novices at describing smells and flavors. If experts are indeed better, we can also ask how general this advantage is: do experts show higher codability only for smells and flavors they are expert in (i.e., wine experts for wine and coffee experts for coffee) or is their linguistic dexterity more general? To address these questions, wine experts, coffee experts, and novices were asked to describe the smell and flavor of wines, coffees, everyday odors, and basic tastes. The resulting descriptions were compared on a number of measures. We found expertise endows a modest advantage in smell and flavor naming. Wine exp)
The history of the formalization of marriage law in the Latin medieval West is very much like a series of normative tensions. Although the conflicts of norms cannot be restricted to theological and legal controversies, their interest lies in the fact that they sometimes gave rise to the expression of contradictory norms, depending on the forum at stake. This was more particularly the case when it came to the question of settling the moral and judiciary issues in connection with the hierarchical status of clandestine marriages and that of public ones, or ones of “sexual intercourse followed by words of future” and those of a marriage contracted by “words of present.” Which of these processes guaranteed a “true” marriage? And according to which normative references? The different solutions provided by canonical doctrine, theology, the manuals for parish priests and confessors or even synodal statutes enable us to assess the different goals of the clerics concerned by matrimonial issues. Much is at stake, because what is concerned is the salvation of the laity and the balance of the whole society. These normative tensions sometimes led to conceptual and lexical evolutions, but they also entailed certain forms of competition that could undermine the usual means of social regulation, which the actors involved in the marriage could sometimes take advantage of.
Lexical units with reduplication of word-forming affixes in the texts of the 11-14th centuries reflect the specificity of stylistic features of the Old Russian literature. They also serve as the means of promotion and fixation of important structural and semantic tendencies in the history of Russian. The reduplication of the affixes reflects peculiarity of literary speech, based on the intersection of the Church Slavonic and the original Russian linguistic traditions. It represents different genre-related norms of Old Russian, or norms with variation of expressive means as an inherent feature. Accordingly, the most active models of suffixal reduplication include genetically heterogeneous (Russian and Church Slavonic) synonymic affixes. The contamination of original Russian suffixes with their south Slavonic synonyms is considered to be an instrument of genre and stylistic adaptation of the derivatives to the specifics of a text. The semantic redundancy of words, being the result of the affixal reduplication, corresponds, first of all, to the general stylistic peculiarities of literary speech, and, secondly, is viewed as the basis of semantic development of some lexical and grammatical word classes: in the class of nomina abstracta the reduplication of suffixes contributs to concretization of the meanings of abstract names; in the sphere of verbal prefixation, the "threading" of synonymous affixes became the basis of development of new modifying meanings – the modes of verbal action.
Abstract We are investigating methods by which data from dependency syntax treebanks of ancient Greek can be applied to questions of authorship in ancient Greek historiography. From the Ancient Greek Dependency Treebank were constructed syntax words (sWords) by tracing the shortest path from each leaf node to the root for each sentence tree. This paper presents the results of a preliminary test of the usefulness of the sWord as a stylometric discriminator. The sWord data was subjected to clustering analysis. The resultant groupings were in accord with traditional classifications. The use of sWords also allows a more fine-grained heuristic exploration of difficult questions of text reuse. A comparison of relative frequencies of sWords in the directly transmitted Polybius book 1 and the excerpted books 9–10 indicate that the measurements of the two texts are generally very close, but when frequencies do vary, the differences are surprisingly large. These differences reveal that a certain syntactic simplification is a salient characteristic of Polybius’ excerptor, who leaves conspicuous syntactic indicators of his modifications.
Perceiving not just values, but relations between values, is critical to human cognition. We tested the predictions of a proposed mechanism for processing categorical spatial relations between two objects—the shift account of relation processing—which states that relations such as ‘above’ or ‘below’ are extracted by shifting visual attention upward or downward in space. If so, then shifts of attention should improve the representation of spatial relations, compared to a control condition of identity memory. Participants viewed a pair of briefly flashed objects and were then tested on either the relative spatial relation or identity of one of those objects. Using eye tracking to reveal participants’ voluntary shifts of attention over time, we found that when initial fixation was on neither object, relational memory showed an absolute advantage for the object following an attention shift, while identity memory showed no advantage for either object. This result is consistent with the shi)
The extent of research on children’s speech in general and on disordered speech specifically is very limited. In this article, we describe the process of creating databases of children’s speech and the possibilities for using such databases, which have been created by the LANNA research group in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at Czech Technical University in Prague. These databases have been principally compiled for medical research but also for use in other areas, such as linguistics. Two databases were recorded: one for healthy children’s speech (recorded in kindergarten and in the first level of elementary school) and the other for pathological speech of children with a Specific Language Impairment (recorded at a surgery of speech and language therapists and at the hospital). Both databases were sub-divided according to specific demands of medical research. Their utilization can be exoteric, specifically for linguistic research and pedagogical use as well as for studies of s)
While research on affective word processing in adults witnesses increasing interest, the present paper looks at another group of participants that have been neglected so far: pupils (age range: 6-12 years). Introducing a variant of the Berlin Affective Wordlist (BAWL) especially adapted for children of that age group, the "kidBAWL," we examined to what extent pupils process affective lexical semantics similarly to adults. In three experiments using rating and valence decision tasks in both the visual and auditory modality, it was established that children show the two ubiquitous phenomena observed in adults with emotional word material: the asymmetric U-shaped function relating valence to arousal ratings, and the inversely U-shaped function relating response times to valence decision latencies. The results for both modalities show large structural similarities between pupil and adult data (taken from previous studies) indicating that in the present age range, the affective lexicon and the dynamic interplay between language and emotion is already well-developed. Differential effects show that younger children tend to choose less extreme ratings than older children and that rating latencies decrease with age. Overall, our study should help to develop more realistic models of word recognition and reading that include affective processes and offer a methodology for exploring the roots of pleasant literary experiences and ludic reading.
Children’s interpretations of sentences containing focus particles do not seem adult-like until school age. This study investigates how German 4-year-old children comprehend sentences with the focus particle ‘nur’ (only) by using different tasks and controlling for the impact of general cognitive abilities on performance measures. Two sentence types with ‘only’ in either pre-subject or pre-object position were presented. Eye gaze data and verbal responses were collected via the visual world paradigm combined with a sentence-picture verification task. While the eye tracking data revealed an adult-like pattern of focus particle processing, the sentence-picture verification replicated previous findings of poor comprehension, especially for ‘only’ in pre-subject position. A second study focused on the impact of general cognitive abilities on the outcomes of the verification task. Working memory was related to children’s performance in both sentence types whereas inhibitory control was sel)
Lexical units with reduplication of word-forming affixes in the texts of the 1114th centuries reflect the specificity of stylistic features of the Old Russian literature. They also serve as the means of promotion and fixation of important structural and semantic tendencies in the history of Russian. The reduplication of the affixes reflects peculiarity of literary speech, based on the intersection of the Church Slavonic and the original Russian linguistic traditions. It represents different genre-related norms of Old Russian, or norms with variation of expressive means as an inherent feature. Accordingly, the most active models of suffixal reduplication include genetically heterogeneous (Russian and Church Slavonic) synonymic affixes. The contamination of original Russian suffixes with their south Slavonic synonyms is considered to be an instrument of genre and stylistic adaptation of the derivatives to the specifics of a text. The semantic redundancy of words, being the result of the affixal reduplication, corresponds, first of all, to the general stylistic peculiarities of literary speech, and, secondly, is viewed as the basis of semantic development of some lexical and grammatical word classes: in the class of nomina abstracta the reduplication of suffixes contributs to concretization of the meanings of abstract names; in the sphere of verbal prefixation, the “threading” of synonymous affixes became the basis of development of new modifying meanings the modes of verbal action.
A considerable body of sensory research has addressed the rules governing simultaneity judgments (SJs) and temporal order judgments (TOJs). In principle, neural events that register stimulus-arrival-time differences at an early sensory stage could set the limit on SJs and TOJs alike. Alternatively, distinct limits on SJs and TOJs could arise from task-specific neural events occurring after the stimulus-driven stage. To distinguish between these possibilities, we developed a novel reaction-time (RT) measure and tested it in a perceptual-learning procedure. The stimuli comprised dual-stream Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) displays. Participants judged either the simultaneity or temporal order of red-letter and black-number targets presented in opposite lateral hemifield streams of black-letter distractors. Despite identical visual stimulation across-tasks, the SJ and TOJ tasks generated distinct RT patterns. SJs exhibited significantly faster RTs to synchronized targets than to )
In this paper, a system for semantic textual similarity, which participated in Task-1 in SemEval 2016 (monolingual and crosslingual sub-tasks) is described.The system contains a preprocessing step that simplifies text using PPDB 2.0 and detects negations.Also, six lexical similarity functions were constructed using string matching, word embedding and synonyms-antonyms relations in WordNet.These lexical similarity functions are projected to sentence level using a new method called Polarized Soft Cardinality that supports negative similarities between words to model opposites.We also introduce a novel L 2 -norm "cardinality" for vector space representations.The system extracts a set of 660 features from each pair of text snippets using the proposed cardinality measures.From this set, a subset of 12 features was selected in a supervised manner.These features are combined by SVR and, alternatively, by using the arithmetic mean to produce similarity predictions.Our team ranked second in the crosslingual sub-task and got close to the best official results in the monolingual sub-task.
In many British or American post-colonial settings, English is still recognized as an official or semi-official language and plays a (more or less) important part in education, administration and the media. Due to the pervasiveness of English in these territories, second language varieties of English have developed. These varieties have undergone nativization, i.e. “systematic changes in […] formal features at all linguistic levels” (Lowenberg,1986: 1), as a result of “new ethnographic and other cultural ecologies” (Mufwene, 1993: 195). In other words, they are marked by a number of innovations. While innovations in such varieties have been described at many linguistic levels (e.g. phonology (Fuchs, 2014), morphology (Biermeier, 2009), tense and aspect (Werner, 2013)), the lexis-grammar interface has been argued to be particularly prone to innovation (Bauer, 2002; Schneider, 2007). Verb-complementation figures prominently in this regard with reported innovations such as new prepositional verbs (e.g.discuss about), or new light verb constructions (e.g. give a look) (e.g. Mukherjee, 2010). Such lexico-grammatical features are of particular interest to the study of nativization because “they operate way below the level of linguistic awareness” (Schneider, 2007: 187) and are therefore likely highly revealing of underlying and unconscious processes of acquisition and hence nativization. Interestingly, it seems that many such innovations were once described as specific to one variety but are in fact shared by several varieties (Nesselhauf, 2009). Such similarities are often referred to as ‘Angloversals’ (Mair, 2003) and suggest that universal cognitive processes (e.g. analogy or simplification) may be at play in innovative features. Against this backdrop, this contribution examines the complementation of the high-frequency verb make in British English and three second language varieties of English, namely Hong Kong, Indian and Singapore English on the basis of corpus data (The International Corpus of English (Greenbaum & Nelson, 1996)). This study is rooted within a Construction Grammar framework (Goldberg, 1995; 2006), which is particularly well-suited for this analysis as it captures the lexis-grammar interface by positing a continuum in degree of abstraction of constructions that ranges from schematic, i.e. abstract, constructions (e.g. the ditransitive construction [Xsubj V Yobj1 Zobj2]) to (partially) substantive, i.e. lexical, constructions (e.g. [Xsubj jog <someone’s> memory]) (Goldberg, 2006). Taking advantage of this continuum of abstraction, a three-pronged approach is taken to the patterning of make: (1) at the highest level of abstraction, the distribution of make across schematic constructions is compared across varieties; (2) at an intermediate level, the different lexically-bound patterns of these schematic constructions are identified and compared across varieties (e.g. [Xsubj make Yobj Vinf], [Xsubj make Yobj Vto-inf] for the causative construction); (3) at a more substantive level, the collocates of make in certain slots of the most frequent constructions (e.g. the verb-slot in the causative construction) are contrasted across varieties. Descriptively, the different innovative patterns are thus identified and compared at each level, and in a second step, an attempt is made at explaining these innovative features, thereby hopefully shedding some further light on processes of nativization in L2 settings. References Bauer, L. (2002). An Introduction to International Varieties of English. Edinburgh: EUP. Biermeier, T. (2009). Word-formation in New Englishes. Properties and trends. In Hoffmann, T. & L. Siebers (eds.), World Englishes – Problems, Properties and Prospects. Selected Papers from the 13th IAWE Conference. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 331-349. Fuchs, R. (2014). Integrating variability in loudness and duration in a multidimensional model of speech rhythm: Evidence from Indian English and British English. In Campbell N., D. Gibbon, & D. Hirst (eds.), Social and Linguistic Speech Prosody. Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Speech Prosody. Dublin, 290-294. Goldberg, A. E. (1995). Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago IL: The University Press of Chicago. Goldberg, A. E. (2006). Constructions at Work: The Nature of Generalizations in English. Oxford: OUP. Greenbaum, S. & G. Nelson. (1996). The International Corpus of English (ICE) Project. World Englishes 15(1), 3-15. Lowenberg, P. H. (1986). Non-native varieties of English: nativization, norms, and implications. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 8(1), 1-18. Mair, C. (2003). Kreolismen und verbales Identitätsmanagement im geschriebenen jamaikanischen Englisch. In E. Vogel, A. Napp, and W. Lutterer (eds.) Zwischen Ausgrenzung und Hybridisierung, Würzburg: Ergon, 79-96. Mufwene, S. S. (1993). African substratum: Possibility and evidence: A discussion of Alleyne’s and Hancock’s papers. In Mufwene S. S. (ed.), Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 192-208. Mukherjee, J. (2010). Corpus-based insights into verb complementational innovations in Indian English. In Lenz A. N. & A. Plewnia (eds.), Grammar between norm and variation. Frankfurt a.m.: Peter Lang, 219-241. Nesselhauf, N. (2009). Co-selection phenomena across new englishes: parallels (and differences) to foreign learner varieties. English World-Wide 30(1), 1-26. Schneider, E. W. (2007). Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. Cambridge, UK: CUP. Werner, V. (2013). Temporal adverbials and the present perfect/past tense alternation. English World-Wide 34(2), 202-240.
The article discusses the methodology and the preliminary results of the research project entitled language in Monolingual and Bilingual Acquisition: tools, theories and applications (LAMBA). The project involves 25 researchers - linguists, educators, psychologists - from five institutions in Latvia and Norway, and focuses on phonological, lexical and morphosyntactic acquisition of Latvian as a native language in monolingual and bilingual settings. One of the main goals of the project is to develop a set of norm-referenced language assessment tools that would allow for accurate and time-efficient evaluation of language development in pre-school children. The article will focus specifically on the Latvian adaptation of MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories - a parental report tool that assesses the development of receptive and productive vocabulary, and certain aspects of grammar. Two CDI forms were adapted in the project: CDI Words and Gestures designed for use with children between 8 and 16 months of age, and CDI Words and Sentences designed for 16- to 36-month old children. Each CDI form contains extensive and language-specific checklists of lexical items, communicative gestures and grammatical constructions. Keywords: infants, toddlers, CDI, KAT, LAMBA, Latvian language, adaptation, Norway, project.