Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
16504 papers
This study focuses on verbal errors in the written production of Chinese learners. Verbal errors refer to a use of the verbal unit that does not conform to those of the norm, such as those observed in reference dictionaries and grammars. Verbal errors concern several dimensions: at the morphological level, at the semantic level and lexical co-occurrences, at the level of grammar and syntax and at the level of context and gender. On the basis of error analysis research and learner’s corpus research, we have developed a grid of errors based on the errors identified in the corpus. This grid of errors helped us to semi-automatically build a corpus of Chinese learners indicating verbs and verbal errors. Our objective was to reveal the main difficulties of Chinese learners with regard to the verbal units, to highlight the circumstances where errors appear frequently, and to identify possible sources of the difficulties. The results showed that verbal errors made by Chinese learners focus on the conjugation and the agreement of the verb, the time, the aspect and the mode of the verb, the lexical meaning of the verb, the prepositions governed by verbs, and the wrong syntactic structures related to the verb. Inattention aside, we have identified others possible sources of errors: the negative transference of Chinese and English, the deficiency in language knowledge of French and the morphological proximity between the target verb and the verb used.
The normative space of legal discourse does not only contain norms of various types and functions - regulatory and constitutive, formal and non-formal - but also implicates general value-based benchmarks of both social behavior of society in general and the representatives of political and state power and their "way of thinking". The article considers the correlation between the etymology of the English word, used in the text of legal discourse, and the cognitive reconstruction of the meanings of the concept «reasonable authority» on the example of Family Procedure Rules used in England and Wales. Etymological memory of a word is viewed upon in this study as a «mobile determiner» of the context, able to modify the conception of the UK judiciary. The etymology of a word should reveal the deep semantics of lexical units, uncover inferential characteristics and show the connotations of the word.
The article deals with sociolinguistic analysis of modern official female onomasticon of Ukraine. Its dynamics reflects processes, which are taking place in language system, and changes in society, social demographic and ethnic pattern, cultural markers and values, even the extent of legal regulation of social relations. Sociologists are interested in personal names as a means of social categorization and differentiation of individuals. Legists see them as a tool for one’s legalization and as an object of legal protection. Anthropologists study them as special units of communication and interaction between generations. For linguists they are a specific typexplore them linguists – ists of means of lexical nomination. Linguistically onomasticon is a valuable source of information on the current state of language norms, level of linguistic culture of the population, and the status correlation between languages in society. According to the date of the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine, the repertoire of newborn girls’ names in 2015–2019 exceeded half a thousand units. It’s due to the magnitude of globalization processes in naming, restoration of national naming traditions, rising social freedom in choosing names, and, sometimes, the decay of sense of responsibility in naming and insufficient language culture. About third part of female names appears as phonetic, orthographic and morphological variants. Ukraine is a multinational state and representatives of other nationalities and national minorities maintain their own naming traditions. Ukrainian spelling of these names in documents often is inconsequent. Often variants arise due to the ambiguity of transliteration, Ukrainian-Russian language interference and violation of Ukrainian spelling standard. Much less it is a result of alive alternation in the Ukrainian language. Rows of variants of the same official female name consist from two to five or six units. Among them there are normative and anomalous variants. In first case main and optional variants can be distinguished. Optional variants are not conventional in language practice but they do not violate the essential features of national language system (over time, some of them may become more popular than the main variant). Linguistically such variants are the same unit, the natural manifestation of potentialities of language system. But legally, person’s name can’t be spelled differently in her documents.
Abstract The current investigation examined the development of second language (L2) intensifier use in spoken Spanish over a 6-week immersion program in Madrid ( n = 45). Native Spanish speakers from Madrid ( n = 10) served as a comparison group to represent the local ambient input or sociopragmatic norm to which L2 learners were exposed. Data were extracted from semi-structured interviews. Results exposed different developmental trends over the program for intensifier frequency, intensifier lexical diversity, and intensifier collocations. While learners already had a strong sense of which intensifiers were most frequent in Spanish and how to use them in appropriate linguistic environments at the beginning of the program, the immersion program had positive impacts on the development of intensifier frequency and intensifier lexical diversity. The findings also highlighted different intensifier frequency developmental trends among learners, which collectively suggested that learners adjusted to the sociopragmatic norm of intensifier use in Madrid over the immersion experience.
The study analyzes the linguistic and stylistic features of comic texts in terms of their influence on translation peculiarities of short situational utterances. The relevance of this work is preconditioned by the fact that the issue of adequate translation and understanding of humor in English is becoming more and more relevant over time due to widespread prevalence of real interaction in the transcultural space. Short humorous texts can be found in different conversational situations, but most often in situations of real communication, which, in turn, allow establishing contact and maintaining productive relationships with representatives of other linguocultures. With the reference to complex methodology, the authors analyze short humorous utterances in the virtual discourse of English messengers. Based on the analysis of a vast representative material, the authors conclude that it is necessary to take into account not only the norms and rules of the literary language, but also the non-literary features of the language (for example, “the mobile language of youth”). It means the need to translate combinations of slang and graphic signs with their specific meaning in short humorous texts. It also entails the implementation of an adequate perlocutionary effect. The peculiarity of short humorous texts translation is largely related to the phenomenon of written pronunciation, as well as imitation of the oral register of communication. The authors’ conclusions prove that in order to comply with different variants of explication of these contaminated characteristics in the target text, the use of modulation transformations, differentiation and functional replacement, as well as compensation and zero translation - complex lexical transformations, is required. Another criterion influencing the translation peculiarity of these humorous texts is the optional and obligatory explication of the comic element. The contextual analysis of the texts confirmed that in more than 30% of cases, the author generated the comic component of the text unintentionally. When conveying random humor, it is important to preserve the situation of the original and the style of speech of the author of the original message, which entails the emulation of speech features used in the framework of self-presentation strategy.
The article deals with the issues of the application of the theory of genres while handling professional medical discourses. The practical implementation of the theory of genres in learning a professional medical discourse is one of the efficient techniques in current methodology of teaching English. The topicality of the research is determined, firstly, by the fact that different genres are commonly used in the practice of medical professional interaction and the domain of a foreign language teaching in a medical language classroom. Secondly, there is a need to outline grammar and lexical peculiarities of the genres of medical discourses and their functioning in oral and written speech. The authors study the problems of the theory of genres concerning medical discourses. The researchers characterize the main lexical and grammar peculiarities of the genre of an oral presentation of a patient’s medical history, the genre of a scientific text for the specialty “Technologies of Medical Diagnosing and Treatment”, the genre of a letter of referral to a medical specialist and reveal specific features of their functioning in oral and written speech. Linguistic analysis of a medical discourse which is focused on lexical, grammatical, functional and rhetoric peculiarities of a written or an oral discourse appears to be very fruitful allowing us to answer the questions how tests are structured and organized. Textual success often depends on the familiarity of text organization for readers of the discourse community, however small or large that community might be and students should be aware of the genre norms. Dealing with professional medical genres, we assume that every genre is clearly structured and has its own sets of language structures. The task of language instructors is to acquaint the learners with existing genre norms. The authors have singled out the “moves” of the three genres and developed the sequence of pre-reading, while-reading, post-reading and information gap activities which are effective while working on the discourses that have been studied.
Word senses are typically defined with textual definitions for human consumption and, in computational lexicons, put in context via lexical-semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hypernymy, etc. In this paper we embrace a radically different paradigm that provides a slot-filler structure, called {``}semagram{''}, to define the meaning of words in terms of their prototypical semantic information. We propose a semagram-based knowledge model composed of 26 semantic relationships which integrates features from a range of different sources, such as computational lexicons and property norms. We describe an annotation exercise regarding 50 concepts over 10 different categories and put forward different automated approaches for extending the semagram base to thousands of concepts. We finally evaluated the impact of the proposed resource on a semantic similarity task, showing significant improvements over state-of-the-art word embeddings.
В современных русских говорах, несмотря на воздействие на них норм литературного языка, межкультурную контактность и деформацию в результате воздействия средств массовой информации, постепенное исчезновение диалектов в условиях цивилизации медиа, сохраняется лексическое ядро, в котором особое место занимает лексика нравственно-религиозной сферы. Наличие этого лексического пласта выделяет русский язык среди других в отношении аксиологической акцентированности земного и небесного. В настоящей статье обобщены наблюдения автора, касающиеся состава, семантики, сложения лексических гнезд, составляющих макрополе народного православия, формальной стороны словопроизводства единиц соответствующей лексики на общерусском фоне с привлечением материала, собранного автором статьи в Тамбовской области. Выделены разновидности структурных типов номинаций, определены особенности и приоритеты словообразовательной креативности. Для достижения целей исследования применялись методы сопоставительного, лексического, словообразовательного, компонентного анализа. Despite the influence exerted on them by the literary norms of the Russian language, despite the intercultural contacts promoted by mass media, and despite gradual annihilation of dialects provoked by media-propelled civilization, modern Russian dialects preserve their pivotal lexemes which are mostly related to the sphere of morality and religion. This lexical stratum, the axiological significance of the celestial and the earthly realms, distinguishes the Russian language from other languages. The present article summarizes the author’s ideas related to word formation, to the composition and semantics of lexical clusters of the macrofield of public orthodoxy. The analysis involves the material collected by the author in the Tambov Region. It singles out structural types of nominations, defines the peculiarities and priorities of creative word-formation. To achieve the aim of the research, the author employs such methods as comparative analysis, lexical analysis, word-formation analysis, and componential analysis.
This study aims to discuss the ethics of public communication in a digital age, based on the hadith perspective. It is based on the poor ethics of communication in society, which leads to the emerge of SARA, hoaxes, and politicization of religion. The article addresses prophetic traditions concerning ruwaybid}ah that could provide values on the norms of communication. Based on the lexical meaning, the word ruwaybid}ah means people who are weak towards noble matters. Muhammad’s description through the editorial “fools who meddled in community affairs” has a close relation to the cause of social inequality at that time. Through a socio-historical approach, it argues that anyone who does not have capabilities in a particular field and tries to impose his or her incapacity, they could belong to the ruwaybid}ah category. Further, this study attempts to formulate key important principles of today’s digital age communication based on the hadith.
The article deals with the linguistic-poetic and lexical-semantic features of historical epics and heroes of the Nogai era, which left a fundamental trace in the political and legal development of the nomadic society of Eurasia.Nogai Orda was one of the largest structures that appeared on the territory of Kazakhstan after theweakening of the Ak Orda and the collapse of the great AltynOrda.Ten Nogai tribes brought with them a rich literary heritage at the time when they became part of theKazakh people. The poetic and rich poetry of the Nogai people developed and improved the norms ofthe oral Kazakh literary language. As well as the epic works of the Nogai era of the Kazakh, Nogai andBashkir tribes speaking the same Turkic languages, left a big mark in the lexical basis and in the composition of these languages.The lexical and semantic features of the Nogai epics are rich in didactic contents, have a deep philosophical meaning, various expressions and emotions, words of edification, aphorisms, periphrases andsyntactic parallelisms.Epic tales and historical epics of the Nogai era have a rich lexical composition, as it includes suchthematic groups as toponomic names, anthroponyms, ethnonyms, military vocabulary, zoonymies, socio-political vocabulary, theological vocabulary and abstract concepts, household vocabulary.
The article deals with reproducing contaminated speech of literary characters in the Ukrainian translation s of J. Steinbeck’s novel "East of Eden" and the play "Hysteria" by Т. Johnson. Contaminated speech (a foreign accent) is a wide-spread stylistic means of characterizing literary characters. The specific nature of the accent remains under the dispute among researchers in translation studies. Some scholars regard the accent as a phonetic phenomenon only. However, our research is based on V. Vinogradov’s statement that accent covers the speech deviations on all language levels. In addition, the important aspect of investigating accents is understanding that an accent is a product of language interference. The literature review contains the works of theoreticians and practitioners of translation studies (A. Fedorov, S. Florin, V. Komissarov, O. Kopyl’na, T. Nekryach, O. Rebrii, S. Vlakhov, etc.). The research relevance is determined by anthropocentric approach to text interpretation, which allows to investigate literary characters as language personalities. The object of the research is the constituents of Spanish and Chinese accents of literary characters. The subject of the research comprises the translation tactics of reproducing the foreign accents. The purpose of the research is to reveal the specific traits and components of the foreign accent of literary characters and to single out the optimal translation tactics for its faithful reproduction in translation. To achieve the aim, the following objectives have been set: to examine the specific features of foreign accents of literary characters and to highlight the specific translation tactics of rendering foreign accents. Results of research. Creative writers resort to imitating foreign accents to create original characters and emphasize their foreign identity. The specific traits of a foreign accent can be represented in fiction in the form of deviations from the literary norm on the phonetic, grammatical, and lexical levels. Reproducing these specific traits can be regarded as a translation challenge difficulties and requires special skill s on the part of translator. According to V. Komissarov, the natural sounding of a foreigner’s speech should be the top priority in accent reproduction. The Ukrainian translations of T. Johnson’s play "Hysteria" and J. Steinbeck’s novel "East of Eden" demonstrate successful reproducing of the Spanish and Chinese accents. While creating the Spanish accent of his character T. Johnson resorted to incorrect use of words, grammatical mistakes, distortion of the phonetic and morphological structure of words. These features of the character’s speech make an integral component of his language personality, which is carefully conveyed by the Ukrainian translator. In order to preserve all motivated deviations from the literary norm, the translator uses the parallel translation. In the absence of appropriate equivalents the translator resorts to compensation by applying distortion of phonetic, morphological, and syntactic norms. All the translation means represented in this translation seem to be optimal for creating a stage dialogue. Salvador Dali’s Spanish sounds natural and easy for audial perception, which is the most important in drama translation. While translating the Chinese accent, Tetiana Nekryach resorts to the parallel translation of phonetic distortions of words. The translation tactics of compensation is applied for rendering the grammatical mistakes in the character’s speech. All translation means are used for embodiment the author’s intent and increasing the impact on readers. Thus, the Chinese accent are reproduced on all language levels, including phonetic, grammatical, and lexical. Originality. The study of approaches to conveying foreign accents of literary characters, considering the specific nature of the accent, represents the research originality. Thus, the phonetic, grammatical, and lexical components of the foreign accents were investigated, and the optimal translation tactics of their rendering were singled out. Conclusions. In conclusion, it should be mentioned that due to the differences in structures of the target and source languages, it is impossible to fully reproduce contaminated speech on the all language levels in translation. Therefore, the translator should find the functional analogues for faithful reproducing a foreign accent. Among the optimal translation tactics of accent reproduction, the parallel translation and compensation are singled out. The perspective of the research lies in further investigation of contaminated speech and comparison between the translation tactics applied in drama and prose translation.
The article focuses on one of the elements of legal communication normative culture of constructing narrative at the level of logic. The genesis of the maturation of theory and philosophy of logic is taken into account. The basic typical connections of the logic of the legal text with the norms in the statements of oral written legal discourses ah with the lexical
In this paper we shall analyze several examples of morphological and syntactic calques taken from the Russian language, used in oral and written communication by the Romanian-speaking population in the historical province Bessarabia, the present-day Republic of Moldova. Unlike semantic calques, the morphological loan translations we have identified in source texts are less numerous, because the morphological structure of the language is not so receptive to foreign influences as its lexical structure. In terms of the morphological loan translations, we have chosen to contrastively analyze the forms resulting from calquing the reflexive diathesisin Russian. The constructions with an obligatory reflexive are taken after the Russian language, when, in fact, the literary Romanian language norm often recommends the use of the active voice.The syntactic loan translations we have identified are much more numerous as compared to the morphological ones and, most of the times, they reside in imitating case relationships according to the Russian language pattern
Language production ultimately aims to convey meaning. Yet words differ widely in the richness and density of their semantic representations, and these differences impact conceptual and lexical processes during speech planning. Here, we replicated the recent finding that semantic richness, measured as the number of associated semantic features according to semantic feature production norms, facilitates object naming. In contrast, intercorrelational semantic feature density, measured as the degree of intercorrelation of a concept's features, presumably resulting in the coactivation of closely related concepts, has an inhibitory influence. We replicated the behavioral effects and investigated their relative time course and electrophysiological correlates. Both the facilitatory effect of high semantic richness and the inhibitory influence of high feature density were reflected in an increased posterior positivity starting at about 250 ms, in line with previous reports of posterior positivities in paradigms employing contextual manipulations to induce semantic interference during language production. Furthermore, amplitudes at the same posterior electrode sites were positively correlated with object naming times between about 230 and 380 ms. The observed effects follow naturally from the assumption of conceptual facilitation and simultaneous lexical competition and are difficult to explain by language production theories dismissing lexical competition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
In the 19th century, broad functional development begins in the field of styles, where there is an even greater stability of linguistic norms, the increase in national characteristics and internal capabilities of the language, as well as the widespread use of various stylistic methods in speech, which they begin to record in dictionaries. The relevance of the study is explained by the interest in the dialectal vocabulary of the Tatar language, as one of the components of the lexical fund of bilingual dictionaries of the 19th century. The purpose of the study is to determine the role of dialect words in the system of Tatar speech of the 19th century, as one of the Turkic languages. In the course of the study, the authors studied the modern works of Russian and foreign authors on linguistics, lexicography; the dialectal material recorded in the Russian-Tatar dictionaries of the 19th century is analyzed; comparisons are made between the dictionary by M. Kashgari and the modern Tatar language.
The color picture of the world, in our opinion, is included in the cultural and conceptual picture of the world. The distribution of a particular color in the culture, household items, costumes, and works of art of a people depended on their customs, traditions, religious beliefs, and aesthetic norms. The linguistic color worldview is realized in the form of color meanings in separate lexemes, phrases, idiomatic expressions and other verbal means.it is organically included in the lexical system of the language worldview. The article discusses the use of features chloronema black in phraseology of Russian and Mari languages. Based on the analysis of the estimated values of phraseological units with the black component, a conclusion is made about the General negative attitude to this color in the axiological picture of the world of speakers of the studied languages.
Exploration of trajectories of expressive language samples is essential for understanding potential indicators for language disorder assessment. This study examined conversational language samples from 341 typically developing Mandarin-speaking children aged 3–7. Through analysis of lexical diversity and word classes, a norm-referenced dataset for vocabulary assessment was built, including indicators such as vocD and the types and tokens of nouns, verbs, measures, adverbs, conjunctions and prepositions. As norm-referenced indicators for the language development of children speaking Mandarin, these developmental data could also inform clinical therapists about the direction of intervention for children with vocabulary deficits.
The problem of language interference being a process which retards the mastering of a second language, having appeared as a result of transference of speech skills from one contact language into another (from the native language into the foreign language, from the first foreign language into the second one), has concerned researchers for decades. This phenomenon has a direct influence on the success of an individual’s mastery of a foreign language and its use—involving both receptive and productive types of speech activities. Interference resulting from the negative impact of one language on another covers all linguistic levels of the language being studied, including lexical, which leads to deviations from the language norm and numerous lexical errors of students. Linguists and methodologists are trying to find ways to reduce the interference of the language being studied at the lexical level in order to optimize the process of mastering a foreign language and minimize lexical errors of students. The purpose of the current study is to investigate ways to overcome intra-language and inter-language lexical interference in junior courses of the Azerbaijan University of Languages and to verify the validity of these methods in the course of a practical experiment.
Abstract This paper analyses a snapshot of a conflictive Greek YouTube polylogue dealing with the issue of public online female nudity and the norms pertaining to both the act itself and its verbal critique. The said polylogue contains a markedly high proportion of lay (im)politeness/(in)appropriateness evaluations ( Locher and Watts 2005 ). By quantifying and critically analyzing key lexical impoliteness ( Culpeper 2011 ) and metapragmatic markers contained in the evaluations, I identify the ways in which the norms of online verbal behaviour are discursively negotiated amongst the polylogue participants, focusing especially on the arguments and justifications underlying the suggested norms. It is found that, firstly, the notions of (im)politeness/(in)appropriateness emerge as open to fierce, yet heavily argument-supported discursive dispute; secondly, sexualized slang functions both as an object of critique and as an extremely versatile rhetorical instrument serving metapragmatic argumentation; and, thirdly, online (im)politeness/(in)appropriateness is construed not as a superficial matter of netiquette, but as a deeply ethical and political-ideological controversy, especially regarding speech liberty and political correctness.
The article is concerned with the problem of correlation of the homogeneity and the co-ordination in French that is essential to differentiate a simple sentence with the similar verb predicates of a complex sentence. The urgency of such problems is based on the similarity of these syntactic constructions due to the co-ordination link existing in both constructions. This fact doesn’t allow the grammarians to arrive at a common view on the nature of the two constructions. The author proves the influence of the verb predicate syntactic links with the other parts of the sentence on classifying the structure as a simple or a complex sentence. In the paper there have been studied the similar verb predicates in the extended and unextended sentences. In the extended sentences the author focuses on the form and place of a complement, on the presence or absence of the adverbial modifier. The verb predicate grammar form itself influences the differentiating the two structures. Thus, it has been concluded that the main distinctive feature of predicate homogeneity is the grammatical marker. There have been detected the supplementary distinctive feature of predicate homogeneity is the semantic aspect, the lexical meaning in particular. The treated analysis of the empiric material shows the dependence of determining the two syntactic units on the stylistic norms and the rhetorical mode. The most important finding of the research is that, contrary some scientists’ opinion, there is no reason to abandon the term of the similar verb predicates in French.
The United States with its presidents stepping into power from either the Democratic or Republican parties influences global affairs in one way or another. These two main political parties have long been struggling for power and the significance of tapping into the ideological inclinations of the two parties underscores scholars’ accountability toward raising the critical language awareness of the public which could be an initial step toward a change for the better. The presidential inaugural speeches, due to their programmatic and strategic nature, are of significance to researchers. This study employed van Dijk’s (2006b) socio-cognitive framework where he defined two levels of analyses for a political discourse including the micro-level and macro-level text analyses. The former included 25 discursive devices such as polarization, generalization, hyperbole, etc. The latter drew on the dichotomy of ‘positive self-representation’ and ‘negative other-representation’. In the present study, the linguistic features in 16 inaugural speeches delivered by American Democratic and Republican presidents from 1961 to 2017 were examined at both levels. The overall data analysis revealed that Democrats employed ‘norm expression’ and ‘presupposition’ significantly more than Republicans, while Republicans made more use of ‘categorization’, ‘lexicalization’, and ‘populism’. The macro-level comparison of the two parties indicated that both Democrats and Republicans resorted to using ‘positive self-representation’ significantly more than ‘negative other-representation’ while the deployment of ‘negative other-representation’ by Republicans was significantly more than that by Democrats. The findings of this study have some implications for English for political purposes, political studies, as well as attempts in discourse studies.
An attempt was made in the article to identify sources and ways to update the credit vocabulary in German at the end of XVII – mid XIX centuries. The article determines the structure of the correlated with the mentioned sphere German vocabulary during mentioned period. The article specifies the peculiarities of the analyzed terminology caused by both general trends in the development of the German language in the period of formation of the national norms of word usage (presence of a large number of synonymous and double-headed designations) and the specifics of folding of the lexicon of the financial and credit sphere (preservation of naming units of dying concepts, functioning of intermediate lexemes). The research allows us to state that at the current stage of credit terminology development the special dictionary is replenished in the course of lexical borrowing processes from such Western European languages as Italian and French. As for the intra-linguistic word-production of credit nominations, it took place mainly on the basis of word-producing resources in the course of semantic and morphemic derivation, with the obvious prevalence of addition.
В статье рассмотрены вопросы формальной адаптации в русском и осетинском языках новых заимствованных слов, различных вариантов их графического оформления, морфемно-морфологических признаков, тематических групп, в наибольшей степени отличающихся от принятых в обоих языках правил адаптации. На примерах неологизмов русско- и осетиноязычного медиадискурса показаны этапы приспособления новаций к системе языка-реципиента. В осетинский язык входит множество заимствований, среди которых лексические единицы, относящиеся к совершенно различным тематическим кластерам, в том числе к IT-технологиям, цифровым технологиям, новым дистанционным и электронным образовательным технологиям, робототехнике и т.д. Осетинский язык какие-то из них заимствует в том виде, в котором они попадают в русский, а уже через посредство русского языка такие лексемы входят в осетиноязычное пространство в оригинальном или даптированном виде. Инографическое оформление иноязычных заимствований, вошедших в русский и осетинский языки в последние годы и месяцы, рассматривается не с точки зрения нарушения норм и традиций принимающего языка или посягательств на самостоятельность и этническую идентичность, а как один из этапов адаптации неологизма в языке, начальной стадии вхождения его в другую графическую систему, за которой в дальнейшем лексеме предстоит орфологическая адаптация. Большой языковой материал, использованный в исследовании, позволил авторам прийти к выводу о том, что современный осетинский язык является открытой системой, легко приспосабливающей к своей грамматической норме любые варианты лексем, которые она берет из других языков, совершенно разными способами, а не только инографическим оформлением. В нем много неологизмов, созданных средствами самого осетинского языка, что говорит о жизнеспособности и гибкости его в мире цифровых реалий. The article considers the means of formal adaptation of new loans borrowed into the Russian and Ossetian languages, as well as to various options of their graphic figuration, morphemic and morphological features, thematic groups, most especially distinct from the standard adaptation rules of both languages. The stages of novation adaptation to the system of the language recipient are demonstrated by the examples of neologisms in the Russian speaking and Ossetian speaking media. A lot of loan words enter the Ossetian language, among which are lexical units of various thematic clusters including IT, digital technologies, robotics et-cetera. The Ossetian language receives some of them through the mediation of the Russian language, this kind of lexemes enter the Ossetian speaking space having undergone adaptation or in their original forms. Latinized variants of the loan words borrowed by the Russian and Ossetian languages in recent years and months have been considered neither in terms of a contraversion of norms and traditions of a recepient language nor as an infringement of self-sufficiency or ethnic identity, but in terms of one of the adaptation stages, the initial stage of the infiltration of a loan into another graphic system, after which the lexeme is to be adapted morphologically. A considerable amount of linguistic data used in the research leads the authors to the conclusion, that currently the Ossetian language is an open system, where any variation of lexemes borrowed from other languages are easily adopted to its grammatical form not only by means of using Latin alphabet, but in variety of ways. It has coined a great number of neologisms, which proves the viability and flexibility of the Ossetian language in the contemporary digital world.
Reading comprehension is the process of reader’s interaction with a written language and making meaning from the text. Studies show that there is a great difference between skilled and poor readers in terms of using the fundamental strategies of reading comprehension, i.e., cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Due to the lack of appropriate tool for measuring adults’ reading comprehension level in Iran and the lack of appropriate criteria for selecting the texts for such a tool, the aim of this study was to make a placement tool for evaluating adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension level. It was amixed methods study and the aim was to answer three main questions about finding a text selection criterion for reading comprehension tests, using the selected criteria for making reading comprehension placement test and studying the validity and reliability of the devised test. Findings showed that text selection criteria should be fitted with patterns of international tests and the linguistic principles of text. The content validity of the text was approved by experts, after implementing their comments on the texts and questions. To ensure the test reliability and to do item analysis, the test was distributed among a sample of 60 MA students of University of Guilan at two stages. The reliability of the test was computed and Cronbach’s alpha were 0.84 and 0.82 respectively, showing the appropriate reliability of the tool. After normalization, this tool can be used to evaluate adult reading comprehension and in educational planning, it can be used for selecting the educational content. Introduction: Reading comprehension is the process of reader’s interaction with a written language and drawing meaning from the text. Generally, reading comprehension is a complex and multidimensional process which is done through two core processes. The first is decoding the symbols and recognizing the words, and the second is integrating the meaning of words in the context of the text (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; in: Atkinson, 2014). Learning reading comprehension is a long-term process; so it is at the end of the learning process that the adult reader can easily read different texts and draw the meaning from them. Studies show that there is a great difference between skilled and poor readers in terms of using the fundamental strategies of reading comprehension, i.e., cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Cain, Oakhill & Bryant, 2000). Weakness in the prerequisites of reading comprehension and failure in selecting the appropriate comprehension strategies are some of the important problems of students at different educational levels when reading different types of texts. Some international studies have been done on the reading comprehension such as PIRLS[1] and PISA[2] tests. During the recent years, the number of such studies has increased in Iran. Perhaps it could be due to the Iranian students’ low performance in the PIRLS test at different time intervals which shows their weakness in reading comprehension. Despite such weak results in international tests, and doing some related research in Iran, still there is no appropriate tool for determining the reading comprehension of Iranian people, especially adults. Living in the modern society needs learning and reading various texts. Despite the importance of this issue and the quantitative progress in the number of graduate students, there is no specific criterion to determine the educated adults’ level of reading comprehension. The development of higher education is a great scientific evolution that despite its positive effects has some shortcomings as well. One of the most important shortcomings is the lack of an appropriate placement tool for evaluating students’ reading comprehension in order to prepare suitable educational material. The aim of this study was to develop a placement tool for evaluating adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension. The study followed three main objectives, i.e. finding text selection criteria and the related questions for reading comprehension tests, using the selected criteria for developing reading comprehension placement test and finally determining the validity and reliability of the designed test. Questions: There were three main questions in this study: 1. What are the text and question selection criteria for developing a reading comprehension placement test? 2. Which reading comprehension placement test could be designed for adults, implementing the above-mentioned criteria? 3. Does the designed test have validity and reliability? Method: It was amixed methods study.The qualitative part included finding the text and question selection criteria for developing the adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension placement test and the steps of its development. Also, the quantitative part of the study included the pilot study of the mentioned test to determine its validity and reliability. The content validity of the test was checked by 5 experts. To examine its reliability, the test was distributed among two groups of MA students of the University of Guilan, who were selected using convenience sampling method (each group 30 students) with two months interval and the level of reliability was computed using Cronbach’s alpha. Along with calculation of the reliability of the test, the test items were analyzed in terms of item facility, item discrimination, and the distractors’ distribution. Findings: To select the texts, a combination ofcriteria introduced by the International Institute for the study of Reading Literacy for PIRLS test and Educational Testing Service (ETS) has been used. It was tried to match the selected texts in accordance with patterns of international tests and linguistic characteristics of the texts. These criteria included lexical and grammatical cohesion and also coherence of the texts. Taking into account all of the strategies underlying reading comprehension (i.e., inference-making, comprehension monitoring, text structure, etc.) the test questions were designed at 6 levels. These levels were selected based on the integration of Day and Park (2005) model and the design of TOFEL tests for reading comprehension placement tests. The content validity of the test was approved by 5 linguists, English language teaching, and Persian language teaching experts, after implementing their comments on the texts and questions. To ensure the test reliability, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used. First, the test was distributed among a sample of 30 MA students of University of Guilan and the level of Cronbach’s alpha was 0.82. Also, different levels of item analysis were conducted, including item facility, item discrimination, and the distractors’ distribution. To make sure of the reliability of the test, after revising the items, and with two months interval, the test was distributed among a new sample of 30 MA students of the University of Guilan. Again, the reliability of the test was computed and Cronbach’s alpha was 0.84, showing the appropriate reliability of the tool. Conclusion: This test could be used to assess adult Persian speakers’ level of reading comprehension and also its results could be used to select appropriate educational material. In the next step of this research, this tool should be distributed among a larger sample to determine its construct validity and also to compute its norms so that its results could be cited with more confidence. [1] The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study [2] The Program for International Student Assessment
In this paper we deal with, in terms of traductology and lexical semantics, analysis of legal terminology translation of the Multilateral Agreement between the European Community and its Member States, the Republic of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Bulgaria, the Republic of Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the Republic of Iceland, TheKingdom of Norway, Romania, the Republic of Serbia and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo on the establishment of a common European aviation area as well as its accompanying legal acts in the form of implementation of the European regulations contained in Annex I of the aforementioned agreement into domestic legislation from French to Serbian in order to resolve all problems that an interpreter faces and offer solutions for overcoming them. As Serbia is in process of joining the EU, it is extremely important to harmonize legal regulations with its legislation, where language, as basic legal instrument, plays a crucial role in it. Therefore, the success of application and standardization of legal norms and regulations when concluding bilateral or multilateral agreements depends on correct translation. Starting from thes ituational (denotative) theoretical translation model and the principle of functional equivalence, we will pay special attention to types of semantic relations (monosemy, polysemy, synonymy) between French and Serbian legal terms.
The European Union as a political and economic project characterised by its supranational nature and cultural and linguistic diversity provides a broad research field for translation studies. The now 27 Member States speak with a single voice in every EU legislative act through 24 official EU languages, an achievement only possible because translation plays a key role in legislative procedure that requires an intense negotiation to attain versions of EU legislative texts equally authentic. Indeed, EU target texts as a genre conform to specific conventions and norms, and fulfil the expectation of the translation commissioner, i.e., the EU Institution commissioning the job. Furthermore, language contact through translation of EU legislation gives rise to standardised lexical variants known as Eurolects. Bearing this in mind and appealing to Even-Zohar and Toury’s framework to put EU translation in context, using a corpus linguistics approach, it is our aim to learn the influence of the Portuguese Eurolect on national legislative legal language through the specialised phraseology of environmental law between 1985 and 2019. This presentation will present the criteria selected to build a comparable corpus for this project. The corpus is composed of 405 directives (C1), the primary version of the Portuguese Eurolect and product of interlinguistic translation, 368 national implementing measures (C2), which result from transposition or rewriting, and disperse legislation without connection to the EU (C3). According to our knowledge, this is the first attempt to study the Eurolect phenomenon in the Portuguese language as part of an ongoing doctoral research project.
The article states that journalistic broadcasting is intended to create public opinion or to develop an exact attitude of society towards certain phenomena and events of internal political and international life. The Ukrainian-Russian surzhyk is not only focused on the linguistic taste and contemporaries’ sharp speech attention, but also on the position of cognition through its affiliation with another language, Russian in particular, because of its high frequency and semantic correction in accordance with fashionable communication. In the language of mass communication at the beginning of the XXI century, surzhyk often serves for the transmission of linguistic illiteracy, the absence of the language culture of the heroes of publications, as well as to attract the attention of readers to the person, events, phenomena referred to in the text. The Ukrainian-Russian surzhyk is basically the correspondence to well-known and widely used normative words. They are presented mainly in quotations of heroes of publications. It was found out that pejorative vocabulary means lexical units, the lexical meaning of which includes the connotative aspect (negative emotional sem), which expresses the negative attitude of a speaker to an addressee. That may be often vulgar, versatile, slang vocabulary. Researchers of pejorative vocabulary in the language of the press notice that the printed media texts are full of general neutrality of the narrative tone, but in recent times the use of lexemes with a negative assessment has significantly intensified. In the language of modern mass media among surzhykisms such thematic groups are distinguished: the words of politeness, tokens on the designation of food, names of household things, items of everyday use, personal things, also surzhykisms are used in the sphere of trade between the seller and the buyer; sometimes they have an ironic coloration, and so on. We consider that the surzhyk is a kind of Ukrainian national language that arose as a result of use of words of the Ukrainian and Russian languages by the speakers; it is created out of any norms and poses a threat to the national language. Surzhik has a number of objective prerequisites, the historical character associated with the Russian factor in particular. Many years of planting the Russian language could not but affect the purity of the Ukrainian language.
In this welcome study of the second-century Apocryphal Acts of Paul and Thecla (ATh for Acts of Thecla), J. D. McLarty is particularly interested in questions of emotion and identity. The exploration of themes such as gender, class, and citizenship is driven by narrative analysis and comparison with one of the five complete Greek novels, Chariton's Callirhoe. Revised from McLarty's 2011 PhD thesis, Thecla's Devotion leads the reader carefully through both ATh and Callirhoe, showing their striking emotive similarities and differences. McLarty argues that, despite being a work of Christian fiction, ATh provides a helpful example of how early ‘Christians in one part of the eastern Empire constructed an identity for themselves’ (p. 232). In Chapter 1, McLarty examines the context of ATh, discussing questions of composition, origin, and date. She accepts the view that the Thecla episode was originally included in the larger narrative of the Acts of Paul but was later disseminated independently with the development of the cult of St. Thecla (already present in the fourth century). It is likely that the text of ATh originated in ‘south central Asia Minor’ (p. 5) and is dated to the ‘mid-to-late second century’ (p. 7). Concerning whether the author of the text was male or female, McLarty concludes, ‘even if one wishes to argue for at least some female contribution to the narrative in the form of oral legend, these contributions have been absorbed into a masculine literary culture’ (p. 9). However, the readers and hearers of the text were likely mixed in both gender and class. Rather than a primarily oral development, McLarty sees the composition as reflecting a ‘predominantly literary milieu’ (p. 17), which both imitated and reworked traditions from the Acts of the Apostles. The world of ATh was a changing one, with a growing interest in the ethics of the individual and self-control. This focus is clearest in relation to discussions of marriage and continence contemporary to ATh. McLarty is, therefore, interested in the intersection of pagan ideas of self-control, reflected in Callirhoe, with a Christian view that contains a distinct ‘spiritual dimension to the control of the passions’ (p. 23). Story, in contrast to pure discourse, provides a unique opportunity to affect the emotions of the reader, but may also provide insight into the author's worldview. This study is broken into two parts. The first part analyses the plot of ATh in comparison to Callirhoe. In Chapter 2, McLarty outlines her methodology, focused especially on the concept of ‘ “affect” – the emotive atmosphere created by the construction of plot’ (p. 28). The next chapter provides a diachronic study through an extended discussion of the plots of Callirhoe (Book 1) and ATh. With both narratives, the points of interest are (1) the teleology of the plot, (2) the loci of tension, (3) and causation. While Callirhoe anticipates a safe return home, ATh ends with all of Thecla's ties to family and home broken, leaving her in ‘a plot space that is without definition’ (p. 89) as she goes about evangelizing. Plot tension presents a challenge to the reader's assumption that all will end well for the protagonists. This tension also provides Thecla with an opportunity to mature through perseverance, a process that culminates in self-baptism. While the concept of ‘Chance’ (τύχη) – sometimes personified as a deity – plays an important role in the causation of Callirhoe, it does not appear in ATh. Instead, God appears in the narrative through deus ex machina (in the theater of Iconium), in order to save the heroine. Human causation in ATh is largely confined to the lack of emotional control, with Paul being the main exception. Chapters 4 and 5 are devoted to a synchronic study, consisting of an analysis of time (Chapter 4), space, and place (Chapter 5). While the author of Callirhoe uses many technical literary features for emotive affect, ATh is often simplified and provides additional moral exhortation. McLarty discusses how the idea of place is subverted in ATh: Tombs and prisons become places of Christian devotion, and the stadium is used for baptism, rather than death. While McLarty claims that ‘Thecla is not portrayed as overturning male authority’ (p. 119), she does transgress boundaries of gender and class. Thecla is found denying her betrothed and, therefore, the civic value of marriage; she roams the streets unaccompanied and ultimately develops into a wandering ‘ “type” of Christian philosopher’ (p. 124). The second part of this study examines character and characterization as the locus of expressed emotion in the narratives. From here, ‘one can therefore glean useful information about the role of emotion in the ATh author's own community’ (p. 132). McLarty proposes a methodology that combines ancient and modern theories of character and compares ATh with Callirhoe as its ‘genre model’ (though she is clear that it is not the only model). Chapters 7 and 8 explore characterization in Callirhoe (Chapter 7) and ATh (Chapter 8), each divided by female and male characters in the narratives. Characters are described in terms of social class and emotional expression, which reveals that, in these narratives, emotion (produced from desire) is reserved mostly for the upper class. Callirhoe also shows the ‘potential destructiveness of uncontrolled masculine emotions’ (p. 166). At times the heroine is depicted as more masculine or ‘warlike’ (p. 167), while the hero is feminized. However, the conclusion of the narrative provides a return home, both physically and emotionally, with both characters fulfilling their culturally defined gender and societal roles. ATh, on the other hand, contrasts and subverts many of these expectations. Although Thecla is understood to be overtaken by passion for Paul, not unlike to the heroine of Callirhoe, it becomes clear to the reader that her true desire is for the gospel he preaches. McLarty concludes that Thecla's character remains that of the ‘perpetual παρθένος [unmarried girl]’ (p. 219). In spite of this, the narrative ends with Thecla reaching maturity through baptism and possessing ‘a masculine control of her emotions’ (p. 219). Again, the contrast with Callirhoe is apparent when the reader understands that Thecla does not return home but remains independent and isolated. This combination of celibacy and isolation subverts many of the second century assumptions about gender and class – namely, that young women (especially of high status) should marry and let their husbands protect them from falling victim to eros (desire). While Paul does not subvert gender norms as such, he does challenge many social categories. ATh portrays Paul as an opponent to the leading men of the city, who are fighting for Thecla's affection. However, ‘Paul does not take part in this contest, an indication that the honour system of the Christian community is different from that of the wider pagan society’ (p. 220). McLarty's final chapter provides a useful summary of emotion and identity in ATh, while also returning to some motifs that she hints at in the beginning of the study. In particular, she discusses the Christian narrative's interaction with pagan philosophy (especially Stoic and Cynic). ATh presents Paul as ‘like a philosopher in his mastery of the passions’ and as a wise man ‘countering the kinds of argument [against Christians] advanced by Celsus’ (p. 227). In contrast to these philosophies, the ‘mastery of the passions’ achieved by both Paul and Thecla comes ‘through Christ’ (p. 232). There is much to admire in McLarty's approach to ATh. Her detailed lexical analysis of both Callirhoe (Book 1) and ATh is sure to provide a useful guide for readers. McLarty also draws from a broad range of classical and Christian texts as comparanda to this apocryphal book. Although she makes a strong case for the predominantly Graeco–Roman background of ATh, one might wonder whether comparison with a Jewish novel like Joseph and Aseneth could further shed light on character and emotion. It is not clear that the bibliography has been fully updated from her 2011 thesis. For example, one will not find interaction with Susan Hylan's A Modest Apostle: Thecla and the History of Women in the Early Church (Oxford: OUP, 2015), who argues that Thecla does not depart from modesty, contrary to what McLarty claims (p. 170). Finally, it is possible that McLarty's emphasis on Thecla's isolation overshadows certain hints at her accumulation of followers. For this reason, McLarty does not mention the ‘band of young men and maidens’ (ATh p. 40), who accompany Thecla in her final return to Paul. This does not negate the overall point about Thecla's subversive character but may indicate some desire in the second century to follow the heroine's example. In the end, McLarty's captivating prose and persuasive arguments ensure that this work is an important contribution to the study of ATh.
When a new phenomenon or an advance in technology originates in society, it is natural that new terms appear to refer to the phenomenon, technology, new use, and so on. The impact of this new disease, COVID-19 is so strong that no one has been able to foresee how long they will have to live under conditions of isolation and social distance. COVID-19 has changed our lives drastically. A new normal is required, and it is affecting various areas of daily life. For this reason, new terms have appeared and certain expressions have acquired greater relevance due to their use in a generalized context due to the pandemic. There are few published studies on the impact of COVID-19 on the Spanish language. This research analyzes this effect of coronavirus pandemic on the lexical inventory of Spanish. Its main objective is to analyze the difference in the use of terms related to the coronavirus, depending on the country or region in the Spanish-speaking world. To collect the data, an online survey was conducted using a semi-closed questionnaire. With the help of volunteers, 346 questionnaires were collected for this study. The attitude of users towards the use of the new terms is examined, as well as the discriminatory use of language around the pandemic. It is concluded that the norm will end up accepting neologisms and variants that Spanish-speakers have innovated and put into circulation in this situation.
-Currently, the coverage of the studies of language levels between related languages is expanding in terms of historical continuity in linguistics, thus much attention is paid to the problem of finding complicity in related languages. It is because of a sign system, which saved the nation’s history, culture, cognition in a lexical richness of each language. Linguistic signs that have emerged as the norm and widespread among the people in the structure of any language are very common in the language of other people. This feature is very often found inside the Turkic languages themselves. This is a key factor that shows historical relations between Turkic peoples. Integral selection and study of pronouns, which constitute a large-scale part of the lexical fund, their comparison from the point of view of a separate linguistic phenomenon, are the definition of language and cognition of a related ethnic group and is also considered a spiritual and cultural source of accurate information about their relationship. The article discusses the similarities and differences of Turkic pronouns through the study by the method of historical comparison of pronouns in the Turkic languages.
Lexical normalization is the task of translating non-standard social media data to a standard form.Previous work has shown that this is beneficial for many downstream tasks in multiple languages.However, for Italian, there is no benchmark available for lexical normalization, despite the presence of many benchmarks for other tasks involving social media data.In this paper, we discuss the creation of a lexical normalization dataset for Italian.After two rounds of annotation, a Cohen's kappa score of 78.64 is obtained.During this process, we also analyze the inter-annotator agreement for this task, which is only rarely done on datasets for lexical normalization, and when it is reported, the analysis usually remains shallow.Furthermore, we utilize this dataset to train a lexical normalization model and show that it can be used to improve dependency parsing of social media data.
Abstract While corpus studies on academic writing have improved instructional materials for writing in the hard sciences, humanities and social sciences world language writing pedagogy remains open to development. In the interest of data-driven Spanish for academic purposes curricula, using English and Spanish corpora of psychology, history and literary criticism articles, we analyzed nouns occurring in sentence-subject position in 100 randomly-sampled sentences. In both languages, psychology had significantly more epistemic, and fewer phenomenal, sentence subject nouns than the other two fields. We extended our analysis to lexical bundles containing Spanish-English equivalent noun phrases in sentence-subject position which occurred significantly more often in psychology in both languages. The results are discussed in terms of scientific and humanities writing pedagogy for both languages.
Este trabalho objetiva analisar o vocabulario documentado pelo Projeto Atlas Linguistico do Brasil (ALiB), especificamente as ocorrencias em Mato Grosso do Sul das variantes lexicais que nomeiam o referente geralmente conhecido como boteco – QSL 202/ALiB (COMITE NACIONAL DO PROJETO ALiB, 2002, p. 37), area semântica Vida urbana, enunciadas por 28 informantes entrevistados pelos pesquisadores do Atlas Linguistico do Brasil (ALiB), habitantes de seis pontos de inquerito sul-mato-grossenses. Tratando-se de pesquisa descritiva com base em dados empiricos, o estudo tem como base teorica a Dialetologia e a Geolinguistica (FERREIRA; CARDOSO, 1994; ISQUERDO, 2003), bem como principios da Sociolinguistica (CAMACHO, 2001). Por meio da analise do corpus, os resultados finais obtidos mostraram o registro de 7 variantes lexicais para nomear o boteco, sendo que a de maior incidencia foi de boteco/botequinho/botiquim, com 44% das ocorrencias, seguida por bar, 30%, e na sequencia vem bolicho, com 10% dos registros. A maior variacao lexical ocorreu na capital, Campo Grande, com sete variantes, tambem unico ambiente em que se observou o item lexical emporio. Nota-se tambem que boteco/botequinho nao aparece como o de maior incidencia na capital e em Ponta Pora, locais em que se destaca bar (38% e 50% de produtividade, respectivamente). Ja uma menor variacao encontra-se na cidade de Paranaiba – com apenas duas unidades lexicas registradas – boteco/botequinho/botiquim e bar. Diante do exposto, pode-se concluir que, com os resultados obtidos e analisados, o estudo apresentado pode contribuir para as pesquisas dialetais, pois, a partir de dados geolinguisticos, analisou os nomes para boteco em Mato Grosso do Sul, ratificando a importância dos estudos lexicais para o conhecimento da norma linguistica de uma sociedade e sua intrinseca relacao com a historia e a cultura. ABSTRACT: This work aims to analyze the vocabulary documented by the Atlas Linguistic of Brazil Project (ALiB), specifically the occurrences in Mato Grosso do Sul of the lexical variants that name the referent generally known as boteco (bar) - QSL 202 / ALiB (NATIONAL COMMITTEE OF PROJECT ALiB, 2002, p. 37), semantic area Urban life, enunciated by 28 informants interviewed by researchers from the Linguistic Atlas of Brazil (ALiB), inhabitants of six survey points in that state. In the case of descriptive research based on empirical data, the study is theoretically based on Dialectology and Geolinguistics (FERREIRA; CARDOSO, 1994; ISQUERDO, 2003), as well as principles of Sociolinguistics (CAMACHO, 2001). Through the analysis of the corpus, the final results obtained showed the registration of 7 lexical variants to name the bar, with the highest incidence being boteco/botequinho/botiquim, with 44% of occurrences, followed by bar, 30%, and in the sequence comes bolicho, with 10% of the records. The largest lexical variation occurred in the capital, Campo Grande, with seven variants, also the only environment in which the lexical item emporio was observed. It should also be noted that boteco/botequinho does not appear as the one with the highest incidence in the capital and in Ponta Pora, places where bar stands out (38% and 50% of productivity, respectively). A smaller variation is found in the city of Paranaiba - with only two lexical units registered - boteco/botequinho/botiquim and bar. Given the above, it can be concluded that, with the results obtained and analyzed, the study presented can contribute to dialect research, since, using geolinguistic data, it analyzed the names for bar in Mato Grosso do Sul, ratifying the importance of lexical studies for the knowledge of the linguistic norm of a society and its intrinsic relationship with history and culture. KEYWORDS: Lexical norm; Mato Grosso do Sul; Atlas Linguistic of Brazil Project; bar.
Abstract This paper reviews Louw’s (1993 and subsequent publications) deployment of reference corpora in the light of existing philosophical and linguistic milestones when it comes to the notion of the truthfulness of a proposition. Louw (William Ernest. 1993. Irony in the text or insincerity in the writer? The diagnostic potential of semantic prosodies. In Mona Baker, Gill Francis & Elena Tognini-Bonelli (eds.), Text and technology: In honour of John Sinclair, 152–176. Amsterdam: John Benjamins) resorts to reference corpora in order either to explicate a rhetorical device (in Louw 1993, that of irony) or to attempt to reveal the true attitude of the speaker to his/her own proposition (including instances of insincerity). Using two methods (co-selection and wildcarding), an author’s collocational patterns in context are checked against those in the reference corpus, also in context. The frequent lexical variables of grammar strings are taken to represent that string’s corpus-derived subtext. Recently, Louw’s Contextual Prosodic Theory (CPT) has revealed the mechanism of prospection, whereby the grammatical pattern in the first line of a poem anticipates by its most frequent lexical collocates the themes in the remainder of the poem (Louw, Bill & Milojkovic, Marija. 2016. Corpus stylistics as contextual prosodic theory and subtext, 176–183. Amsterdam: John Benjamins). The philosophical background of Louw’s CPT is the works of Frege, Russell and Wittgenstein (Louw, William Ernest. 2010a. Collocation as instrumentation for meaning: A scientific fact. In Willie van Peer, Vander Viana & Sonia Zyngier (eds.), Literary education and digital learning: methods and technologies for humanities studies, 79–101. Hershey, PA: IGI Global and subsequent works) and could be said to be in need of further explanation and illustration. The paper discusses Louw’s take on insincerity (1993) as the speaker’s attitude to the truthfulness of her own statement from the point of view of Frege’s Sinn/Bedeutung distinction, Russell’s logical language, and Wittgenstein’s attitude to the relationship between language and reality. Since prospection may be considered objective proof of the effectiveness of Louw’s approach, an instance of prospection from a poem by Brodsky is used to show that Wittgenstein’s concern for the truthfulness of propositions may be viewed as both the guarantor and the beneficiary of Louw’s views. Additionally, the paper presents an example of prospection in the first line of a novel, Don DeLillo’s White Noise. However, other grammatical patterns in the passage studied in this paper do not contain deviations from the corpus norm, which conforms to the existing commentary on DeLillo in the field of literary criticism. The paper concludes by stating that reference corpora used inductively (Louw, William Ernest. 2017. Uneasy humour as discovery: Collocation and empathy as Whewellian consilience. Studying Humour: International Journal 4) may shed light on the speaker’s attitude to the truthfulness of their own statement.
Over the last two decades, the literature on bilingual children has shown that children who grow up learning two languages do not typically differ in their total vocabulary size compared to their monolingual peers (Poulin-Dubois et al, 2012) though composition may be smaller compared to size with two word-forms representing one lexical concept. However, these studies often sample children from minority bilingual communities (Bialystok et al, 2010) where the languages may be used in somewhat separate contexts. By contrast, in Singapore more than 90% of young people are bi-/multilingual, and dense inter-generational community-level multilingualism is the norm. The education system has an active policy of bilingualism and the majority of children grow up in households where they hear two or more languages/dialects (forthcoming). In recent years, English has become the most frequently reported main language at home for children between ages 5-10 (2010 Singapore Census) indicating rapid language change. This language environment provides a unique opportunity to investigate individual differences in vocabulary development in a non-WEIRD massively multilingual community. \nUsing archival data from the longitudinal birth cohort ‘Growing up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes’ (GUSTO), we investigated the size and linguistic composition of the expressive vocabularies of 140 24-month-olds whose parents filled out local adaptations of the MacArthur-Bates CDI in Mandarin and English. \nIn terms of composition, we find that the proportion of lexical concepts that a child can express in both their languages makes up 40% of their lexicon (Range: 5-537). The bias towards English language dominance is evident (Fig 1), but even the most extreme children are reported to have no more than 50% of their lexicon coming from only a single language. \nRegarding vocabulary size, pooled across languages, vocabulary size ranged from 8-760 (25th, 50th, 75th percentile: 67, 179, and 271 word-forms respectively). These values are notably lower than reported vocabulary sizes for age-matched samples in OECD countries like the UK, North America, and Australia (Oxford CDI, English (American), French (Quebecois), and English (Australian) versions of the Mac-Arthur Bates CDI, Wordbank, 2019). This mismatch is surprising given Singapore’s rankings in standardized educational assessments such as the PISA (OECD, 2018), and suggests that the current assessment tools may be missing an important part of children’s linguistic repertoire. \nIn response to this finding, our multilingual team has identified an entire tier of child-directed words that is not captured in vocabulary inventories adapted from monolingual materials. Many of these local-words aren’t easy to identify as belonging to one language or another (e.g., ‘pom-pom’ for ‘children’s bathing’) and likely arose from Singapore’s dense contact language environment where language mixing and translanguaging are normative. Without any national dictionaries for Singapore, this special tier of child-directed words exist mainly in oral language and have yet to be documented. In response to this finding, our current work includes collecting age of acquisition estimates for over 200 core local words, and developing a new vocabulary assessment to help discover how cheem (profound) the vocabularies of tiny Singaporeans really are.
The article examines the use of grammatical archaisms in the New Latin poetic text based on the historical poem by Simon Pekalid De bello Ostrogiano (Krakow, 1600). It consistently reflects one of the most important properties of poetic speech – the implementation of phonetic-grammatical and lexical-word-formation capabilities of the language system and it clearly shows the dynamic nature of language elements at all levels of Latin. It is determined that the main factors that influenced the adoption of grammatical archaisms were the metric requirements and stylistic canons of the ancient epic. Due to the functions performed in the poetic sphere, the early modern Latin, which owes a flexible language system with a grammatical basis preserved from classical Latin, was characterised by significant variability of the language structure due to the presence of elements of different origin. Belonging to the passive vocabulary of the language, in most cases archaic vocabulary was stylistically marked and it often passed into the category of traditionally poetic. The tradition of the epic genre and the stylistic differentiation of various variants of speech suggested the presence in the epic text of a certain number of archaic morphological forms, as a result of which the stylistic differentiation of inflections-doublets arose in Latin, one of which was archaic. The functioning of archaic forms in the New Latin poetic text has a dual character: as a linguistic unit, archaisms occupy a special place within synchronous relations, but as a stylistic unit they are decoded according to the second, i.e. earlier system of literary language. The use of multi-temporal morphological forms is associated with their poetic function in the language, which has gradually produced certain stylistic norms in the use of grammatical forms over the centuries.
Abstract A widespread opinion holds that norms and codes of conduct as such can only be established via words, that is, in some lexical form. This perspective can be criticized: some norms produced by human acts are not word-based at all. For example, many norms are actually conveyed through graphics (e. g. road signs and land-use maps), sounds (e. g. the referee’s whistle), a silent gesture (the traffic warden’s signal to halt). In this article, we will focus on the norms that are created by means of drawings and can be termed “drawn norms” or “graphical norms.” Specifically, we will inquire into the phenomenon of graphical norms with particular regard to traffic signs and land-use plans, and we will discuss the philosophical and legal problems to which these phenomena give rise.
Abstract This chapter explores the futile lexpionage (lexical + espionage) of the Academy of the Hebrew Language. During the past century, Israeli has become the primary mode of communication in all domains of Israel’s public and private life. Issues of language are so sensitive in Israel that politicians are often involved. For example, in an article in Ha’aretz (21 June 2004), the late left-wing politician Yossi Sarid attacked the (most widespread) ‘common language of éser shékel’ as inarticulate and monstrous, and urged civilians to fight it and protect ‘Hebrew’. However, most Israelis say éser shékel ‘ten shekels’ rather than asar-á shkal-ím (original Hebrew pronunciation: [ʕǎśåˈrå ʃəqåˈli:m]), the former literally meaning ‘ten (masculine singular) shekel (masculine singular)’, the latter ‘ten (feminine singular) shekels (masculine plural)’, and thus having a ‘polarity-of-gender agreement’—with a feminine numeral and a masculine plural noun, which is a Biblical Hebrew norm, not so in Israeli. Brought into being by legislation in 1953 as the supreme institute for Hebrew, the Academy of the Hebrew Language prescribes standards for Israeli grammar, lexis (vocabulary), orthography, transcription, and vocalization (vowel marking) ‘based upon the study of Hebrew’s historical development’. This chapter critically analyses the Academy’s mission, as intriguingly—and in my view oxymoronically—defined in its constitution: ‘to direct the development of Hebrew in light of its nature’. It throws light on the dynamics within the committees’ meetings, and exposes some U-turn decisions made by the Academy.
IntroductionGibraltar is a British Overseas Territory at the southern tip of Spain which was ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.Today, Gibraltar has a population of approximately 30,000 and the only offi cial language is English ( Levey 2015: 66; Central Intelligence Agency 2016 ).Also widely spoken are Spanish and the local Andalusianbased Spanish variety called Llanito (or Yanito), characterized by extensive codeswitching and lexical borrowing from English (as well as from other languages and dialects; see Kellermann 2001;Levey 2008 ).In this linguistic context, the present study focuses on concepts for which a (traditionally more) British variant and a (traditionally more) American variant coexist.More precisely, we investigate two referentially synonymous expressions that are known, or consistently reported in standard reference works and textbooks, to have diff ered in usage between British English (BrE) and American English (AmE) in the late twentieth century (cf., e.g., Algeo 2006; Krug and S ö nning 2017 for web data).On the basis of n = 312 questionnaires (i.e. a sample of roughly one per cent of the population), we investigate what linguistic choices Gibraltarians make in cases such as lorry vs. truck or parcel vs. package.In order to place Gibraltar with regard to the two major norm-providing varieties of English and in order to identify patterns of variation and change, we compare questionnaire data from Great Britain and the US.Th e status of Gibraltar English (GibE) is special in a number of ways.Gibraltar has been labelled an 'unusual British colony' ( Weston 2015: 647), and attempts at linguistic description have been characterized as suff ering from a 'mismatch between its colonial status and sociolinguistic theory' ( Weston 2011: 339), for example in terms of categorizations of GibE within models of World Englishes (such as Kachru's Concentric Circles Model or Schneider's Dynamic Model of Postcolonial Englishes).While Spanish-English language contact is omnipresent ( Kramer 1998; Su á rez-G ó mez 2012: 1746-8; see also Table 8.2 below), it is clear that GibE does not epitomize what can be considered a typical L2 variety for a number of reasons.First, the vast majority of the current population in Gibraltar speaks English as a fi rst language or can at least be considered highly fl uent (see www.
This article investigated how network growth algorithms-preferential attachment, preferential acquisition, and lure of the associates-relate to the acquisition of words in the phonological language network, where edges are placed between words that are phonologically similar to each other. Through an archival analysis of age-of-acquisition norms from English and Dutch and word learning experiments, we examined how new words were added to the phonological network. Across both approaches, we found converging evidence that an inverse variant of preferential attachment-where new nodes were instead more likely to attach to existing nodes with few connections-influenced the growth of the phonological network. We suggest that the inverse preferential attachment principle reflects the constraints of adding new phonological representations to an existing language network with already many phonologically similar representations, possibly reflecting the pressures associated with the processing costs of retrieving lexical representations that have many phonologically similar competitors. These results contribute toward our understanding of how the phonological language network grows over time and could have implications for the learning outcomes of individuals with language disorders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
The article is devoted to the description of gender peculiarities in political discourse. In the recent decades the problems of the gender differentiation of speech have been developing rapidly, acquiring the priority importance in Ukrainian and foreign linguistics. The differences of male and female speeches aim to determine the degree of effectiveness of the impact of gendered approaches in political communication on male and female audiences. Men and women have been alleged to differ in every area of psychological functioning at one point or another, so language use is not an exception. Gender in politics is particularly interesting to study, as there is a tendency of increasing of the women’s number in political positions around the world in today's world. Gender is one of the most important individual-level attributes known to structure patterns of social connectivity in human social networks. We identify gender strategies as a factor in the realization of the language of the politician in mass media, identify and describe the speech strategies and tactics used by female politicians in the political media discourse. Exploring the gender pecularities of political interaction, we pay attention to the gender specifics of communication in general. Typological analysis of political speeches of Britain, American and Ukrainian politicians is made, their gender differences is proved, importance of gender component of modern political discourse is demonstrated. The official nature of political speeches and features of the socio-legal status of political leaders oblige them to comply with certain norms and rules of communicative behavior. Politicians must combine lexical, morphological and syntactic features of discourse to effect and inform listeners and in the same time not overload their speech, so that the speech does not seem difficult to understand, as well as devoid of any meaning. The female politicians were shown to be more formal, critical and task-focused, while the male politicians were more socially oriented and elaborative. While the female politicians worked on establishing themselves as independent politicians, the male politicians embraced their collective identities.
The article deals with the study of Jazz poetry as a part of integral jazz art which highly involves music, literature, singing and jazz dancing and presents a complex worldview. Intertextuality of jazz poetry is claimed to characteristic feature of postmodern literature. Basic ideas of democracy, equality, tolerance and struggle for freedom and justice determine such key qualities of jazz art as polyphony, polyrythmy, improvisation and emotionality. Examples of different literary stylistic devices (repetitions (lexical and syntactic; anaphor, epistrophe, parallelism), alternation of long and short phrases and syncopes, complex sentences and constructions, lack of punctuation, thematical shifts and digressions, rhetorical questions) used to express democracy, equality, tolerance and struggle for freedom and justice in jazz poems are provided extensively. Multi-aspect nature of jazz art combining music, singing, literature and dancing determines its deep symbolism. Music which since its very uprise has been Jazz foundation, its secret code, its central means of struggle for freedom, has produced the majority of symbol-dominants in Jazz poetry (saxophone, horn, drums, banjo and piano) which possess special connotations of ancient traditions, authenticity, cultural uniqueness and sensuousness of Afro-Americans. Dance and singing imagery are also of great importance in jazz verses. Blues and Broadway jazz represent both deep voiceless grief of former slaves and unrestrained merriment inherent in Afro-American culture. Jazz dance as well as jazz music, is a symbol of resistance, disobedience, rebellion against former white masters. Jazz dance is a rebellion against the traditions of classical dance reflecting the struggle against established social norms.
The purpose of the article is to study the role of negation in the representation of the concept BALANCE in the modern American stories. The methods of component, contextual-interpretative and conceptual analysis are employed.Results. It was found out that the linguistic reflection of the concept BALANCE is determined by one’s sensorimotor experience, which includes pre-conceptual ideas about the balance of the body, and can be represented by lexical and grammatical means, one of which is negation. It was revealed that the negation reflects a certain value conflict in the mind of the characters in the stories studied, the inconsistency of the obtained information to the system of knowledge about the world they acquired. Regarding the fact that the loss of balance is the result of force, which disrupts the stability of the human condition, we correlated the negations with force gestalts, which were used to model the personages’ balance loss. The result of balance loss is a deviation from the VERTICAL, which is correlated with the deviation from the norm, because, firstly, any violation is considered as non-compliance with a certain norm, and secondly, having a general context of opposition as a basis, negation signals about non-compliance with the expected real. Thus, the role of negation as a means of expression of the studied concept is to reveal the physical, psychological and social perspectives of the image of the character in the modern American stories.Conclusions. Negations are correlated with the description of the physiological, emotional states of the characters and their social status, which determines the type of the lost balance. Negative adjectives in parallel with nouns are the skeleton elements of the text, which we interpret as the main carriers of information about balance loss of the characters in the stories analyzed. The convergence of negations as a means of balance loss representation in small passages of the stories creates the effect of a gradual, however, total loss of balance and characterizes the described situation as desperate. Thus, the concept BALANCE in the studied prose is actualized in dynamics, due to the development of the personages’ images, which are characterized by the initial balance and its loss. Метою статті є дослідження ролі заперечення в репрезентації концепту РІВНОВАГА в сучасних американських оповіда-ннях, здійснене за допомогою методів компонентного, контекстуально-інтерпретативного та концептуального аналізу.Результати. Виявлено, що мовне відображення концепту РІВНОВАГА детермінується сенсомоторним досвідом людини, який включає передконцептуальні уявлення про рівновагу тіла, і полягає в його позначенні лексичними та граматичними засобами, одним із яких є заперечення. З’ясовано, що заперечення відображає певний ціннісний конфлікт у свідомості персо-нажа, невідповідність отриманої інформації системі знання про світ, що пов’язано з ментальними уявленнями про істину, які є частиною ядерних понять про власне місце й роль у природі та суспільстві. З огляду на те, що втрата рівноваги є результатом силового впливу, який порушує стабільність стану людини, ми співвіднесли заперечення із силовими гештальтами, за допо-могою яких змоделювали порушення рівноваги персонажів. Результатом утрати рівноваги є відхилення від ВЕРТИКАЛІ, яке співвідноситься з відхиленням від норми, оскільки, по-перше, будь-яке порушення розглядаємо як невідповідність певній нормі, а по-друге, маючи загальний контекст протиставлення як підґрунтя, заперечення сигналізує про невідповідність очі-куваного реальному. Отже, роль заперечення як засобу вираження досліджуваного концепту полягає в розкритті фізичного, психічного та соціального ракурсів образу персонажа в сучасних американських оповіданнях.Висновки. Заперечення співвідносяться з описом фізіологічних, емоційних станів персонажів та їхнього соціального ста-тусу, що зумовлює різновид втраченої рівноваги. Заперечні прикметники паралельно з іменниками є опорними елементами тексту, які ми тлумачимо як головні носії інформації про порушення рівноваги. Конвергенція заперечень як засобу позна-чення дисбалансу в невеликих за обсягом уривках оповідань створює ефект поступової, проте тотальної утрати рівноваги, а також характеризує описану ситуацію як безнадійну. Таким чином, концепт РІВНОВАГА представлений у досліджуваній прозі в динаміці внаслідок розвитку образів персонажів, яким властиві початкова рівновага та її порушення.
This paper is an attempt to shed light on linguistic deviation in literary style. Literary language, with its three main genres; poetry, drama and prose, is a situational variety of English that has specific features which belong to the literary and elevated language of the past. Literary language has been assigned a special status since antiquity, and is still used nowadays by some speakers and writers in certain situations and contexts. It has been considered as sublime and distinctive from all other types of language; one which is deviant from ordinary use of language in that it breaks the common norms or standards of language. A basic characteristic of literary style is linguistic deviation which occurs at different levels; lexical, semantic, syntactic, phonological, morphological, graphological, historical, dialectal and register. All these types of deviations are thoroughly investigated and stylistically analyzed in this paper so as to acquaint readers, students of English, researchers, and those interested in the field, with this type of linguistic phenomenon whose data is based on selected samples from major classical works in English literature
The article deals with the theoretical investigation of the notion interference of lexical units of the language. The article also analyzes interference, expressed in deviations from the norm and system of the second language under the influence of the native one.
Lexical normalization is the task of translating non-standard social media data to a standard form. Previous work has shown that this is beneficial for many downstream tasks in multiple languages. However, for Italian, there is no benchmark available for lexical normalization, despite the presence of many benchmarks for other tasks involving social media data. In this paper, we discuss the creation of a lexical normalization dataset for Italian. After two rounds of annotation, a Cohen’s kappa score of 78.64 is obtained. During this process, we also analyze the inter-annotator agreement for this task, which is only rarely done on datasets for lexical normalization,and when it is reported, the analysis usually remains shallow. Furthermore, we utilize this dataset to train a lexical normalization model and show that it can be used to improve dependency parsing of social media data. All annotated data and the code to reproduce the results are available at: http://bitbucket.org/robvanderg/normit.