Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
16504 papers
The article is devoted to the consideration of one of the aspects of the problem of the interlingual translation process: transformations. The relevance of studying the use of transformations is due to the goal of achieving equivalence and the condition of observing the norms of the target language. Based on the translation of J. Bowen's novel «A Street Cat Named Bob» by comparing the source text with the translation text, the article examines the lexical transformations used in the translation of descriptions of the urban environment static elements from English into Russian. Particular attention is paid to the issues of defining a translation transformation, the choice of a convenient classification, as well as the reasons for using certain transformations. The study confirms the opinion of the majority of linguists that the use of translation transformations is inevitable: it is due to the differences in the lexical and grammatical systems of the two languages. E. I. Kolyabina, translator of the novel “A Street Cat Named Bob”, resorts to a large number of transformations and sometimes uses them in combination. Analysis of the translation text shows that the choice of transformation can be forced, or dictated by the translator’s personal preferences.
Generative syntacticians often assume that sentential negatives in all languages are the content of a functional head Neg. Although negatives in many languages are amenable to such an analysis, negatives in certain Polynesian languages are not. This chapter first reviews the evidence presented by Hohepa (1969) and others that sentential negatives in Māori are lexical heads, either intransitive verbs or adjectives, which are the main predicate of a clause that excludes the negated clause. It then explores the question of why Māori negatives should differ from the crosslinguistic norm. The answer that is proposed appeals to syntactic-semantic typology and Māori prosody, and engages with the larger issue of how lexical and functional heads are realized in Polynesian languages.
Introduction. Along with such important issues of speech culture as mastering the rules of spelling and punctuation, lexicology, it is important to study and use the means of expression depending on the purpose and content of expression, governed by grammatical norms of language, deviations from which are morphological and syntactic levels. Violations of morphological norms indicate insufficient attention of media workers to the culture of professional broadcasting, as well as unprofessional editorial processing of materials presented to readers. The purpose of the article is to describe morphological abnormalities in online media, identify the most typical of them and indicate the main erroneous places within the lexical and grammatical class of nouns, numerals, verbs, adverbs formed from numerals. The source base of the study was journalistic texts of online publications of national and regional significance ("Ukrainian Truth", "Doba"). Results. Analysis of morphological deviations within the lexical and grammatical class of nouns showed violations in its formation. Significant difficulties in the inflection of nouns is the genitive singular of the second declension of the masculine gender, namely the correct choice of the ending a (-я) or -у (-ю). In journalistic texts, these endings are interchangeable. he grammatical design of the dative singular of masculine nouns is normative in the analyzed texts. Although most normative sources indicate that the parallel endings овіi (-івi, -євi) / -у (-ю) can be used to denote them, it is stated that the inflections - ові (-eвi, -євi) should predominate in the names of creatures), and in the names of non-beings mostly use -у (-ю). Improper formation of compound numerals also leads to morphological errors. Within the lexical-grammatical class of verbs, the frequency associated with the formation of the imperative mood with the help of the verb tracing paper from the Russian davay / davayte. A powerful source of language pollution of the analyzed online publications is the use of active verbs not peculiar to the Ukrainian language. Forms of active verbs of the present tense in -uch (-yuch), -ach (-yach) are not typical for the Ukrainian language. Conclusion. Thus, the highest frequency in the media texts of the analyzed online publications at the level of morphology are errors associated with the use of uncharacteristic of the Ukrainian language active verbs of the present tense on -уч (-юч), -aч (-яч), with the formation of nouns.
The article examines the features of grammatical adaptation of the borrowing “art” in the modern Ukrainian language, identifies typical violations of current spelling rules in words with this component, suggests the correct options and clarifies the feasibility of its frequent use in modern Ukrainian speech. It has been found that the English borrowed component “art” is well adapted to the recipient language. This is evidenced by its active use in both oral and written speech, the ability to be used independently with a fixed meaning, high word-forming productivity. It is revealed in the texts of the mass media that English borrowing “art” functions in the modern Ukrainian as a inflective masculine noun of the second declension of the hard group with the semantics “art, fine arts”. It is observed that having entered the modern Ukrainian lexical system, it takes an active part in word formation, showing high productivity in the process of forming compound nouns. Two models of forming new nouns with the component “art” are differentiated, in which “art” with the meaning “artistic” is the first part of a compound word and “art” with the semantics “art” is the second part of a new lexeme. It is established that the first model is the most productive because of the largest number of these nouns in Ukrainian. It is proved that according to their grammatical nature lexemes with “art” as a reference word are not Ukrainian juxtaposites, as they are not formed on the basis of the Ukrainian, but are borrowed in it like ready-to-use integral lexical units, which speakers adapted to the grammatical structure of modern Ukrainian. In accordance with the current spelling rules the nouns with borrowed component “art” have to be written together. Found in the texts of mass media and oral speech the new lexemes with two prepositive foreign attributives are classified as juxtaposites with a declension of the second part; it is recommended to write them in accordance with the norms of the current “Ukrainian spelling” with a hyphen. It was found that the names of establishments, events, places of cultural events, etc., which consist of proper names or abbreviations combined with borrowing “art”, completely copied from the English word formation, are not typical for Ukrainian and artificially adapted to it in violation of current spelling rules. The article offers their alternative names that meet the grammatical and spelling rules. The analysis of the peculiarities of the adaptation of English borrowed component “art” in the modern Ukrainian will promote a faster study of the grammatical nature of borrowings, their word-forming potential, the correct linguistic qualification of new derivatives and their further normalization.
Changes in language are largely a process of loosening the old norm and gradually creating a new one. It is believed that the media contribute to the preservation of the norm and the maximum slowdown of changes. Newspapers and magazines fix the graphic appearance of the word, and radio and television — sound. Together they set grammatical, syntactic and other patterns, which guides the people who read and listen to them. The author of the article studied the speech features of the interview genre in modern Tatar journalism. Namely 3012 fragments were analysed and the following conclusions were made: due to the interview genre, phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic, orthoepic enrichment of the language occurs; many modern elements borrowed from the Internet are used in print magazines in the Tatar language; there is a tendency to reduce words, use abbreviations, typed language constructions, phraseological units, borrowings, terms, professionalisms, dialectisms, slang expressions, and it is also observed that in different printed publications in the Tatar language, different variants of using common terms are offered in interviews.
The aim of the investigation is to study word formation processes in the semantics of weather lexis in the online narrative of weather news stories in British newspapers.Methods. The source base of the study is represented by a corpus of electronic texts of the new genre “weather news story” in British electronic quality (www.thetimes.co.uk, www.theguardian.com/uk) and mass (www.www.thesun.co.uk, www.thedailymail.co.uk) newspapers (2014–2017). The research is methodologically based on structural-semantic and functional research methods. The application of a functional approach in our study enables the identification of the specifics of functioning and organization of lexical units in the contextual environment of the online narrative taking into account their role in the formation of content and meaning of weather news stories. At the same time, the use of descriptive and comparative methods allows revealing more deeply the individual (author) features of the texts under study.Results. A review of the literature confirms the idea that the creation of new words is based on the models and word formation types that are already established in the language or re-emerging. The modern word formation of weather lexis in weather news stories is characterized by typical methods of word formation, among which we distinguish the affixation, compounding, blending, shortening, and conversion. The common types of word formation in the genre under research are affixation and compounding. The most common prefixes are prefixes with the contrasting semantics un-, anti-, de- and the diminutive prefix mini-, among the noun suffixes -ation, -er, -ism, ity, -ness and adjective suffixes y, -ly, -al, -ic, -ish, -ent, -ous. Both dictionary (normative) and occasional (author) forms are distinguished. The use of occasional forms serves as an expressive means of reflecting the author’s worldview, where the author deliberately violates language norms to provide a certain expressive background to the story.Conclusions. The analysis of word formation of weather lexis in weather news stories shows that its organization occurs through the prism of word formation features of the narrative and diversifies weather news stories.Key words: word formation, lexis, abbreviation, shortening, compounding, blending, conversion, weather news story. Мета. Мета статті – дослідження дериваційних процесів у семантиці номінацій погоди в онлайн-наративі про погодні новини британських газет.Методи. Джерельна база дослідження представлена корпусом електронних текстів неожанру weather news story інтернет-версій британських періодичних якісних (www.thetimes.co.uk, www.theguardian.com/uk) і масових (www.www.thesun.co.uk, www.thedailymail.co.uk) видань (2014–2017 рр.). Дослідження методологічно ґрунтується на положеннях структурно-семантичного та функційного методів. Застосування функційного підходу у проєкції на наше дослідження дає змогу виявити спе-цифіку функціювання й організації лексичних одиниць у контекстуальному середовищі онлайн-наративу з огляду на їх роль у процесі змісто- та смислотворення погодних новин. Водночас застосовано описовий і порівняльний методи, які допомогли глибше розкрити індивідуально-авторські особливості текстів онлайн-наративу про погодні новини.Результати. Досліджено дериваційні процеси у семантиці номінацій погоди. Здійснений огляд літератури підтвердив ідею про те, що творення нових слів відбувається за тими моделями, за тими словотворчими типами, які вже встановилися в мові або знову виникають. Сучасному дериваційному процесу номінацій погоди в ОНПН властиві типові способи словотворення, серед яких виокремлюємо афіксальний спосіб, спосіб словоскладання, телескопію, скорочення і конверсію. Найпоширені-шими способами словотворення у корпусі дослідження є афіксальний і словоскладання. Найпоширенішими префіксами, які слугували утворенню нових номінацій погоди, є префікси з контрарною семантикою un-, anti-, de- та зменшувальний префікс mini-, серед суфіксів ‒ відіменникові -ation, -er, -ism, ity, -ness і відприкметникові y, -ly, -al, -ic, -ish, -ent, -ous. У корпусі досліджуваних текстів виокремлено узуальні/словникові й оказіональні/авторські форми. Визначено, що вживання оказіональних форм слугує експресивним засобом вираження індивідуально-авторської мовної картини, де автор свідомо порушує мовні норми, аби надати певного експресивного фону оповіді.Висновки. Проведений аналіз дериваційних процесів у семантиці номінацій погоди в онлайн-наративі про погодні новини показав, що організація лексичних одиниць на позначення погоди відбувається крізь призму словотвірних особливостей оповіді. Дериваційні процеси в семантиці номінацій погоди зумовили наявність широкої палітри лексики в ОНПН, яка демонструє авторський чинник його організації та урізноманітнює оповідь.Ключові слова: словотвір, лексика, абревіація, скорочення, словоскладання, телескопія, конверсія, weather news story.
The article examines lexical-semantic, syntactic and stylistic features of a female author’s self-presentation in a Russian-language dating advertisement. At first, the essence of the strategy of self-presentation is observed briefly, as well as the compositional and semantic structure of the dating advertisement. Further, the main linguistic and stylistic tools, contributing to the implementation of the strategy of self-presentation, are analyzed. The research was carried out on the material of advertisements posted on Russian-language dating sites, as well as on the material of completed profiles on social dating networks (more than 200 ads and profiles were studied in total). As a result of the research, it was determined that the dating advertisement includes the subtext of self-presentation, or the subtext of the addresser, the subtext of the addressee and the subtext of the future. The presence of the addresser's subtext in the structure of a dating advertisement is invariant. The self-presentation of the female author is realized via the stylization of the text with the help of lexemes, describing character traits and appearance, figurative language, euphemisms, as well as low colloquial speech. The use of expressive units that are not the part of the standard language is more peculiar to authors in the age group of people 18 to 25 years. The researched material indicates the presence of a relation between the author`s age and the frequency of using low colloquial and invective speech, as well as non-verbal means (e.g. emoji). The punctuation spelling norms of the Russian language are often ignored in dating advertisements. However, no obvious link has been established between the frequency of punctuation and spelling errors in the advertisement and the author’s age group. In the analyzed advertisements, there is significant variability of syntactic structures, through which the strategy of self-presentation is implemented. Elliptical sentences with a bright author's expression are the most common.
Speech translation (ST) has lately received growing interest for the generation of subtitles without the need for an intermediate source language transcription and timing (i.e. captions). However, the joint generation of source captions and target subtitles does not only bring potential output quality advantages when the two decoding processes inform each other, but it is also often required in multilingual scenarios. In this work, we focus on ST models which generate consistent captions-subtitles in terms of structure and lexical content. We further introduce new metrics for evaluating subtitling consistency. Our findings show that joint decoding leads to increased performance and consistency between the generated captions and subtitles while still allowing for sufficient flexibility to produce subtitles conforming to language-specific needs and norms.
The use of discipline-specific corpora to determine disciplinary writing norms and rhetorical as well as linguistic features is established practice. Several studies have used discipline-specific corpora to establish such genre features and have testified to the efficiency of using corpora in class or for self-directed learning. Few scholars, however, have investigated the discipline of Political Science in this manner. The present study analyses the use of lexical bundles representing metadiscourse markers in the discipline of Political Science. It builds on a previous study (Bercuci 2020) which investigated lexical bundles in expert writing in the field. As I did in my previous study focusing on metadiscourse markers in the discipline of Political Science, to guide my analyses in this paper I use the definitions offered in Ken Hyland’s early seminal work, Metadiscourse: Exploring Interaction in Writing (2005), as well as his 2008 article, “As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation”. As such, this paper focuses on a learner corpus of undergraduate and graduate student writing in Political Science. I thus reveal the discipline-specific inter-language interference of L1 Romanian into L2 writing in English and indicate the issues on which targeted writing exercises should focus during university-level English for Specific Purposes and English for Academic Purposes classes. Students should be asked to practice register variation through targeted exercises as this appears to be the most prominent case of interference not only of the Romanian language but also of writing norms typical of Romanian research communities in general.
The article goal is to single out and describe verbal means of suggestive influence on the recipient of “Ofudesaki” text a translation erbatim from Japanese: “At the tip of the brush”), which is the main script of the Tenrikyo religion, one of the “oldest” among the many newest syncretic religions in Japan, founded by a simple peasant Nakayama Miki (1797-1887) in 1838. The text “Ofudesaki”, written by the founder of this religion “from the words of God the Father” in 1869-1881, consists of 17 chapters and 1711 tanka poems, which vividly reflect the Japanese language of the second half of the 19th century. This makes it possible to consider “Ofudesaki” as a valuable source of spoken and literary language of this historical era, as well as the then Kansai dialect, because, despite the poetic form, this work is saturated with colloquial vocabulary and dialectal expressions. Thus, the subject of research is the graphic, phonetic, lexical and syntactic features of “Ofudesaki” text, which reflect not only the idiolect of the author of this sacred work, but also give good reason to make assumptions about the intentional pastiche of this text by Nakayama Miki at almost all language levels. The methods of semantic, grammatical, etymological analysis, as well as historical and descriptive ones are used in the work. One of the main results and substantiated by specific examples study findings is the hypothesis put forward by the author of the article that the convergence of Japanese spoken language with literary language was bidirectional. Not only the language of fiction actively influenced the normative base of the national language through the education system, but also the spoken element had a significant impact on the then Japanese language, “eroding” the limits defined by the literary tradition: changing the pronunciation of words, lexical composition, grammar rules, stylistic norms, and so on.
Communicative skills are the leading tendency in the modern methods of teaching foreign languages. The article deals with the aim of such a system of teaching – the establishment of foreign language competence which contributes to the students’ communicative skills. One of the most important component of communicative competence is language competence, that provides on the basis of a decent amount of knowledge as the construction of grammatically correct forms and syntactic constructions, as an understanding the semantic segments of language, organized in accordance with the norms of a foreign language. Undoubtedly, verbal communication is possible only in the presence of language competence. However, removing only the language barrier does not automatically lead to a full-fledged foreign language communication. Rapid growth of international relations puts an increasing number of communicators in need of overcoming not only linguistic, but also cultural and mental barriers. Vocabulary teaching as an integral part of communicative and systemic aspects of foreign language learning is featured. Communication – based techniques of mastering lexical material are proposed. Mastering the purpose of the word, the conceptual functioning of lexical material is aimed at achieving adequate implementation of communicative intent. Useful for the formation and improvement of communication skills is the method of enriching the vocabulary of students by providing synonymous series with an explanation of the difference of meaning. Thus, learning a foreign language is communicatively oriented, so the leading component of the four-single complex of goals is the mastery of language skills for foreign language communication, taking into account its intention, addressee and conditions. Further development of tools and techniques for the formation of components of communicative competence will continue to be relevant in teaching foreign languages to students of non-language higher education institutions, that opens up opportunities for scientific and creative research.
Russian speakers make up the biggest group of foreign-language speakers in Finland. Their use of Finnish words in Russian discourse can be interpreted as an example of multilingual practices, such as code-switching. It can also be viewed as an example of how loanwords are assimilated. While speakers of Russian in Finland are part of a worldwide internet community, they also represent a local community that can have a language form of its own. This article presents an analysis of about 500 cases of Finnish lexical items and word combinations usage in written Russian (260 different lemmas). The material for the research was selected from written internet discourse of a Russophone community on Facebook, a social media platform. Members of this community are Russian women who have been living in Finland for some time. The Finnish words were studied in the context of posts and replies to them. The 475 Finnish words found amounted to 4 % of the total 12,022 words used in the source. The analysis of the material took into account semantic and grammatical features of the items. Semantic features included the categories of proper nouns, terms and other words related to life in Finland. The grammatical analysis began by studying the choice of writing system, i.e. whether the units retained their original spelling which is either in Latin or in Cyrillic. After that, the Finnish words that had been transliterated were studied for the presence or lack of declension as compared to the Russian norm in similar uses. It was suggested that the tendency not to decline Finnish words written both in Cyrillic and Latin in the discourse also affected the syntactic positions in which they were used, making positions that did not require declension overrepresented. The number of examples subjected to the assimilation rules for loanwords in Russian (transliteration and using declension) was small. Therefore, most of the examples represent code-switching, a natural consequence of those living in Finland, and provide evidence for the existence of a local version of Russian.
When a new phenomenon or an advance in technology originates in society, it is natural that new terms appear to refer to the phenomenon, technology, new use, and so on. The impact of this new disease, COVID-19 is so strong that no one has been able to foresee how long they will have to live under conditions of isolation and social distance. COVID-19 has changed our lives drastically. A new normal is required, and it is affecting various areas of daily life. For this reason, new terms have appeared and certain expressions have acquired greater relevance due to their use in a generalized context due to the pandemic.There are few published studies on the impact of COVID-19 on the Spanish language. This research analyzes this effect of coronavirus pandemic on the lexical inventory of Spanish. Its main objective is to analyze the difference in the use of terms related to the coronavirus, depending on the country or region in the Spanish-speaking world. To collect the data, an online survey was conducted using a semi-closed questionnaire. With the help of volunteers, 346 questionnaires were collected for this study. The attitude of users towards the use of the new terms is examined, as well as the discriminatory use of language around the pandemic. It is concluded that the norm will end up accepting neologisms and variants that Spanish-speakers have innovated and put into circulation in this situation.
The article is concerned with the problem of correlation of the homogeneity and the co-ordination in French that is essential to differentiate a simple sentence with the similar verb predicates of a complex sentence. The urgency of such problems is based on the similarity of these syntactic constructions due to the co-ordination link existing in both constructions. This fact doesn’t allow the grammarians to arrive at a common view on the nature of the two constructions. The author proves the influence of the verb predicate syntactic links with the other parts of the sentence on classifying the structure as a simple or a complex sentence. In the paper there have been studied the similar verb predicates in the extended and unextended sentences. In the extended sentences the author focuses on the form and place of a complement, on the presence or absence of the adverbial modifier. The verb predicate grammar form itself influences the differentiating the two structures. Thus, it has been concluded that the main distinctive feature of predicate homogeneity is the grammatical marker. There have been detected the supplementary distinctive feature of predicate homogeneity is the semantic aspect, the lexical meaning in particular. The treated analysis of the empiric material shows the dependence of determining the two syntactic units on the stylistic norms and the rhetorical mode. The most important finding of the research is that, contrary some scientists’ opinion, there is no reason to abandon the term of the similar verb predicates in French.
The present study is an approach to Aymara ethnogeometry that aims to identify mathematical terminology on Aymara geometry, under the epistemological support of Ethnomathematics and interculturality, hoping that it can have a positive impact on the learning and identity of students from rural schools in Puno, where there are problems due to linguistic interference. Within the framework of the ethnographic method, the information was obtained through visits and interviews with the Aymara speakers of the communities of the Moho and El Collao province of the Puno region - Peru, contrasted and supplemented with a documentary source Vocabulary of the Aymara language from 1612 and current specialized literature (books and dictionaries). The geometric terms were identified by equivalence and conceptual approximation, and this process showed that the Aymara language has a rich and flexible mathematical lexical background of its own to adapt to current scientific and pedagogical requirements, whether by creating neologisms or borrowing from raw or foreign languages, in case of gaps. The terminology presented in tables was written respecting the linguistic norms of Aymara, and it is expected that it will be standardized and socialized by the authorities of the Ministry of Education, and serve as the basis for future discussions and research.
In this paper we deal with, in terms of traductology and lexical semantics, analysis of legal terminology translation of the Multilateral Agreement between the European Community and its Member States, the Republic of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Bulgaria, the Republic of Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the Republic of Iceland, TheKingdom of Norway, Romania, the Republic of Serbia and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo on the establishment of a common European aviation area as well as its accompanying legal acts in the form of implementation of the European regulations contained in Annex I of the aforementioned agreement into domestic legislation from French to Serbian in order to resolve all problems that an interpreter faces and offer solutions for overcoming them. As Serbia is in process of joining the EU, it is extremely important to harmonize legal regulations with its legislation, where language, as basic legal instrument, plays a crucial role in it. Therefore, the success of application and standardization of legal norms and regulations when concluding bilateral or multilateral agreements depends on correct translation. Starting from thes ituational (denotative) theoretical translation model and the principle of functional equivalence, we will pay special attention to types of semantic relations (monosemy, polysemy, synonymy) between French and Serbian legal terms.
Practical significance: a comparative analysis of the lexical speech development of preschoolers with mental disorders and preschoolers with the norm of speech development is carried out.The following features were found in children with mental disorders: very low cognitive activity, the predominance of substitution and suffixing in the formation of possessive adjectives, difficulties in selecting the appropriate word, ignoring less pronounced features when describing the subject; poor passive and active vocabulary, inaccuracy of the subject and verb vocabulary, difficulties in updating the dictionary, frequent use of neologisms.
The article analyzes the technique of including outdated, unused words of the Russian language, typical of M. Tyomkina's book of verses "Unvisual Aids". Such linguistic "memes" work as triggers for the self-reflection of the lyrical heroine, who has lived in America for a long time; at the same time, feeling the inextricable connection of her inner self with her mother's tongue, its meanings, phobias, and norms. The Russian words, popping up in her memory, sometimes colloquial, sometimes bookish, or professional-philological ones, form the depth of personality that cannot be realized in everyday life, in business and everyday conversations in English. The article shows that these words, which are "deeply drowned" in her "pre-memory" do not fulfill cognitive or communicative functions, but only psychological and poetic ones, acting as metonyms or "unvisual aids" for self-reflection. Immersion into the lexical and grammatical fields of the native language meanings plays the role of "sequence of times" (Tyomkina), the sequence of linguistic, historical and existential elements. This constitutes the originality of the author's cultural multi-identity. In rejecting the classical form of the Russian verse, Tyomkina develops the lyrical function of poetry through her special "recitative".
Cette étude analyse les erreurs lexicales dans la production écrite de lycéens maltais étudiant le français L2 aux niveaux B1 et B2, en se focalisant sur les erreurs attribuables à l’influence de la L1, qui, à Malte, comprend le maltais, l’anglais et l’italien. Des réflexions sont faites sur la difficulté d’admettre une idéologie translinguistique, tolérante de l’appui fourni par la L1 dans l’écriture en L2, dans le contexte d’un examen à un niveau avancé, avec ses normes de correction linguistique. Un corpus de copies d’examen aux niveaux Avancé et Intermédiaire est fouillé pour les possibilités de phénomènes de transfert, catégorisés en cinq types, émanant de difficultés orthographiques, de choix de mots, ou sémantiques, ces dernières provoquant l’utilisation des faux-amis. Les résultats sont comparés aux conclusions d’études faites dans les cadres maltais et international. La fréquence des contacts linguistiques dans le corpus est probablement attribuable tant à l’alternance codique, comportement omniprésent à Malte, qu’à la nature même de la rédaction en L2, activité forcément bilingue. Des calculs statistiques permettent des comparaisons des fréquences de contact aux niveaux Avancé et Intermédiaire, entre les copies mieux notées et les moins bien notées, comme entre les tâches plus exigeantes et les tâches plus simples.
The study analyzes the linguistic and stylistic features of comic texts in terms of their influence on translation peculiarities of short situational utterances. The relevance of this work is preconditioned by the fact that the issue of adequate translation and understanding of humor in English is becoming more and more relevant over time due to widespread prevalence of real interaction in the transcultural space. Short humorous texts can be found in different conversational situations, but most often in situations of real communication, which, in turn, allow establishing contact and maintaining productive relationships with representatives of other linguocultures. With the reference to complex methodology, the authors analyze short humorous utterances in the virtual discourse of English messengers. Based on the analysis of a vast representative material, the authors conclude that it is necessary to take into account not only the norms and rules of the literary language, but also the non-literary features of the language (for example, “the mobile language of youth”). It means the need to translate combinations of slang and graphic signs with their specific meaning in short humorous texts. It also entails the implementation of an adequate perlocutionary effect. The peculiarity of short humorous texts translation is largely related to the phenomenon of written pronunciation, as well as imitation of the oral register of communication. The authors’ conclusions prove that in order to comply with different variants of explication of these contaminated characteristics in the target text, the use of modulation transformations, differentiation and functional replacement, as well as compensation and zero translation - complex lexical transformations, is required. Another criterion influencing the translation peculiarity of these humorous texts is the optional and obligatory explication of the comic element. The contextual analysis of the texts confirmed that in more than 30% of cases, the author generated the comic component of the text unintentionally. When conveying random humor, it is important to preserve the situation of the original and the style of speech of the author of the original message, which entails the emulation of speech features used in the framework of self-presentation strategy.
Le mot est au centre de toutes les attentions dans l’entier de l’œuvre de Marivaux. Si ce questionnement sémantique est sans doute au cœur de toute entreprise littéraire, il revêt une acuité particulière pour l’auteur dont le style a été nommé « marivaudage », terme dont le sens premier en dit long sur le caractère exacerbé de cette thématique. En effet, Marivaux exhibe le doute lexical, il exhibe la polysémie, creuse la verticalité du sens comme pour en révéler des strates inouïes, pour en épuiser les possibles. Dans cette œuvre complexe, le mot ne tient pas de l’heureuse évidence mais est sans cesse soumis au soupçon: soupçon d’une manipulation, soupçon d’un sens second, soupçon d’un emploi galvaudé; un scepticisme dans la fiction qui constitue sans doute la marque de la quête aléthique de son auteur, car Marivaux a pensé le mot, en écrivain et en philosophe; une quête dont quelques textes théoriques gardent la trace. Cette thèse se propose donc d’observer le pourquoi et le comment du fonctionnement sémantique dans l’œuvre de Marivaux, d’interroger le questionnement permanent autour du mot _ un mot mis en question dans son sens, remis en question dans ses applications au sein d’une interaction _, de scruter les rouages du mécanisme lexical propre à cet auteur et ce, en observant le contexte de production des œuvres, puis le travail sur la répétition du mot et enfin le mot pris dans un réseau de résonance à différents niveaux au sein de la phrase, au sein du discours et au sein du monde et des normes communicationnels qui soutiennent tout échange.
The article explores the strategies for nominate a person in the texts of the pre-election discourse. Nomination practices are a way of representing status-role relations in a particular discourse. The authors describe how practices of person nomination form strategies for reflecting reality, on the one hand, through the relationship with the social norm, status, on the other hand, through the deconstruction of the norm. The pre-election discourse of Internet media revealed strategies to discredit and provoke official norms. The nomination tactics are based on the use of lexical units from the discourse of marginalized communities, jargon, as well as on generalization, when the proper name (person name) becomes a sign of status-role relations, a minimized script that defines the person’s media representation. The second generalization mechanism is based on the use of an additional component determined by discourse, in combination with a neutral lexical unit of nomination. The use of such strategies indicates the expression of opposition views on all political events in the country, including elections. Status-role relations in the pre-election discourse of Internet media are deconstructed, since the norm itself is disputed as the basis of the existing political regime. This is one of the discursive ways of the presence of a “minority” in the media field, an option for exercising his right to a visible presence in the media field.
Gender stereotypes can be considered as one of the prominent concepts in the field of socio-linguistics. These stereotypes are found at all levels of language application, including children’s literature, and play an important role in the reproduction of sexist language and patriarchal discourse. Through a descriptive- analytic method, the present study aims to investigate the aforementioned stereotypes in forty children’s stories of age groups “A” and “B” and seeks to compare the amount and the types of common stereotypes within the cultural linguistics framework as proposed by Sharifian (2016). Then, a linguistic and cultural interpretation of the stereotypes will be provided. The results of this study indicate that although the amount of gender stereotypes in children’s stories has been diminished in the past decades, patriarchal discourse is still remarkably present on the deep structure level and encodes its values and criteria through the presentation of gendered frameworks and roles in language and affects the audiences. 1. Introduction Amongst all kinds of tools for raising a child and passing on the accurate norms and beliefs, children's literature is of special importance as it is associated with words and plays a crucial role in forming the child's mental image of various concepts. While this field has been subdued until the past decade, new approaches consider children’s literature in line with other literary genres bearing textual and meta-textual relations. The issue of gender and hence gender stereotypes has arisen in critique and literary theory from mid-twentieth century and is regarded as one of the fundamental categories which has tremendous impact in the process of child's socialization and subjectivity. Therefore, the present study aims to compare gender stereotypes within a total number of eighty stories in English and Persian story books of age groups A and B within the framework of cultural linguistics in order to answer the three basic questions of the study which involve the similarities and differences between the gender stereotypes used in story books of the age groups A and B in Persian and English, in addition to the linguistic interpretation of these similarities and differences in these two languages and also the cultural interpretation of the similarities and differences in these works In response to the above mentioned questions ethnographic-conceptual text/visual analysis, a highly effective method for a comparative study, has been employed to compare both linguistic and cultural interpretation of stories in Persian and English. 2. Theoretical framework Stories in both age groups of Persian and English are examined within the framework of Cultural Linguistics, as it is one of the branches of cognitive linguistics and studies the intersection of language, cultural and cultural conceptualizations. Cultural conceptualizations refer to the kinds of human experiences, constructed by the culture of societies and encoded in language. Many of the characteristics of human languages are embedded in cultural conceptualizations. Cultural linguistics identifies, describes and analyzes these conceptualizations in human languages (Sharifian, 2017a, P:9). The term refers to fundamental cognitive processes including »schematization«, »categorization« and »metaphors«. In cultural linguistics, schemas are considered as building blocks of cognition that help human being organize, interpret and communicate information. There are 5 types of schemas namely event schemas, role schemas, image schemas, proposition schemas and emotion schemas. Categorization is another form of conceptualization and is the most fundamental human cognitive activity which begins early in life. Another area of language through which cultural conceptualizations encode concrete experiences is the domain of metaphor. In cognitive linguistics, this form of conceptualization is referred to as a mapping or metaphor(Sharifian, 2011, P: 23). 3. Methodology As the research is targeted on the study of 20 stories in each age group of each language, these stories were selected in a randomized manner and examined in the most suited framework of cultural linguistics through a qualitative content analysis. In order to answer the research questions, firstly cultural categories, cultural schemas, and cultural metaphors related to gender stereotypes were identified in the stories and then classified into six categories of family, personality and behavioral characteristics, occupational roles, space, toys, animals, and surreal beings. Then the size of each category in each age group and language besides their similarities and differences were compared to see if there is a meaningful difference in the number of cultural conceptualizations related to gender stereotypes in the stories of the two languages. In the next step and in response to the other two questions of the research, linguistic and cultural analysis of similarities and differences in cultural conceptualizations were presented in both textual and visual contexts. 4. Results & Discussion The findings suggest that despite the existence of gender stereotypes in the stories of both age groups of Persian and English, the rate and the variety of these stereotypes in cultural categories and schemas in Persian stories were dramatically more than English ones both in texts and pictures. Also, the stereotypes seem to be more deeply rooted, more radical and located in concealed linguistic and cultural layers in Persian stories. English has been able to create a minimal context for gender stereotypes by creating new situations and new language; thus, children's stories in Persian require more serious efforts by the authors and cultural programmers. 5. Conclusions & Suggestions Results of the analysis of gender stereotypes in children’s stories of Persian and English based on cultural linguistics has revealed the fact that alongside with the differences in cultural conceptualization in the two languages, there are similarities such as the »occupational role« which is the most repeated category in both languages. The gendered structure exists in both lexical and grammatical levels of both languages and is constantly reproduced. Although there are no such things as gendered pronouns (third person singular in English) or gender markers within a word in Persian, gendered constructs generally appear in larger linguistic units. However, such constructs are still present in English, they do not have much of a conceptual impact and can be said to have been inactivated and largely lost their discriminatory gender sense. Also, studying the conceptualizations in terms of the limitations indicated that the substructures and potentials in Persian stories were far less than the English one. Thus, the result of confluence of language, culture and thought in Persian reflects the mental, cultural and social structures that, in turn, do not allow women to emerge both personally and socially. However, the results of the efforts made in English over the years have come to be seen with a more lively and productive language. Meanwhile, extending the scope of the present study in terms of sample size and content could be a remarkable point considering further studies as examination of children's stories in other higher age groups, moreover, expanding the scope of this comparison can be a valuable contribution to gender-based language research. Select Bibliography Alvanoudi A. 2017. The interface between language and cultural conceptualization of gender in interaction: The case of Greek. In: Sharifian F. (ed) Advances in Cultural Linguistics (pp. 125-147). Singapore: Springer. Browne, B.A. 2013. Gender stereotypes in advertising on children’s television in the 1990s: A cross-national analysis. Journal of advertising, 27(1), 83-96. Gooden, A.M., Gooden, M.A. 2001. Gender representations in notable children’s picture books: 1995-1999. Sex Roles, 45(1), 45-89. Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. 1980. Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago press. Maghsudi, S. 2004. An investigation into the role of women in kid’s stories. Women Research, 3 (2), 43-63. [in Persian] Moeinifar, H. 2009. The representation of gender cliche in media: A case study of the yellow pages of Hamshari. Cultural Research, 3 (2) 3, 4-5. [in Persian] Sharifian, F. 2009. On collective cognition and language. In H. Pishwa (ed), Language and social cognition: Expression of social mind. Berlin: Mount de Gruyter. Sharifian, F. 2011a. An Introduction to Cultural Linguistics. Tehran: Neviseh Parsi Publications. [in Persian] Sharifian, F. 2011b. Cultural conceptualizations and language: Theoretical framework and applications. Amesterdam: John Benjamins. Sharifian, F. 2017. Cultural Linguistics. Amsterdam/PA: Benjamins.
The topic of this thesis is the computational methods for measurement of authorialstyle and algorithms of authorial attribution.The first aim of the thesis was an attempt at a quantifiable separation of various layers of authorial style (in the present case the lexical and grammatical layers) in order to estimate their influence on the results of a chosen method of authorial attribution. Within the scope of these studies I compared the distance, so called Burrows's Delta, between a pair of English novels by two chosen authors and automatically generated texts, whose statistical distributions of parts of speech were borrowed from one of the authors, while the vocabulary from the other one; additionally, in the computatrificial texts I left the sets of words of the first author if they belonged to a particular part of speech. Such procedure allowed to create a hybrid text, which was attributed to the first author, even though the majority of lexical items were that of the second author.The second aim was to identify the influences of the style and language of the original on the style of the translation. This part of research involved among others adapting Polish and English part of speech tag sets to form a common translatorial tag set. Beside making a couple of simple observations concerning the distributions and coocurrences of parts of speech in the two languages, I managed to determine some features of the selected translatorial corpus, which lie on the fringes of what seems a norm for Polish.The third aim was testing the accuracy of state of the art (unsupervised) clustering methods for automatic grouping of texts according to their author. The results show that the methods recognise authorship worse than the known supervised machine learning methods.In the thesis I made use of corpora totalling around 550 digitised English language novels and 100 Polish ones, as well as a parallel corpus of 39 novels of a single English author together with their translations by a single Polish translator. The research conducted involved utilising existing part of speech taggers (both for English and Polish), authorship attribution programmes, and programmes for graph clustering.
Abstract This article is a synthesis of the major elements of a sociolinguistic theory presented by Jean Le Dû and Yves Le Berre in their recent book, Métamorphoses, Trente ans de sociolinguistique à Brest (1984–2014). Given that both authors come from native Breton-speaking families in Western Brittany and have experienced the language shift to French first-hand, they provide a unique, inside view of the process as well as the reasons Breton speakers opted in favour of French. The sociolinguistic concepts they have imagined provide highly useful tools that highlight the inseparable bond between language and the social, political and economic forces that govern our choices. More specifically, they point out that the “Breton language” is splintered into as many varieties as there are social and geographic entities in western Brittany. For this reason, it should not be viewed as a monolithic entity. Far from “reviving” or “saving” the language, the authors argue that the recent creation of a phonologically, grammatically and lexically unified Breton norm is often so distant from the vernacular language that it has provoked a new form of diglossia which failed to reverse the break in the transmission of the natural language. The book provides tremendous insight into the complex issues which lead people to shift to another language. Language planners and scholars working on similar endangered language situations and who want to understand the mechanisms at work (and thus hopefully have some success in their endeavours) would do well to take heed of their experience.
Käesolevas artiklis uuritakse kõrvutavalt originaaltekstiga Fjodor Dostojevski romaani „Vennad Karamazovid“ kahte eestikeelset tõlget, mille autoriteks on Aita Kurfeldt ja Virve Krimm. Analüüsi objektiks on jutustaja muutlik diskursus, mille eripära avaldub stiili ebaühtluses ehk muutlikkuses. Jutustaja „takerduval“ kõnel on romaanis oluline funktsioon, mis seisneb kaootilise, ebakindla kunstilise maailma loomises. Eestikeelseid tõlkeid vaadeldakse võrdluses lähtetekstiga mitmel mikrostilistilisel tasandil: kesksõnatarindid, sõnade ja sõnatüvede kordus, modaalsõnad, deminutiivid, fraseoloogilised üksused, grammatilistest normidest kõrvalekaldumine.
 
 The article studies two Estonian translations of Dostoyevsky’s novel The Brothers Karamazov by Aita Kurfeldt and Virve Krimm, comparing them to the source text. The tradition of translating Dostoyevsky’s works into Estonian has its beginning in the 20th century. It started with Johannes Aavik’s experimental translations and was continued by the classic of Estonian literature A. H. Tammsaare – in 1929, the first Estonian translation of Crime and Punishment appeared in the latter’s translation. In the 1930s, preparations began in Estonia to publish Dostoyevsky’s collected works in 15 volumes, and, as part of this initiative which involved several translators, the novel The Brothers Karamazov first appeared Estonian in Aita Kurfeldt’s translation (1939–1940). Kurfeldt’s translation was later edited and updated by Helle Tiisväli, and the new edition published by the Kupar publishing house in 2001. In the 21st century, the novel was translated for the second time and published by Varrak with an afterword by Peeter Torop in 2015–2016. The translator was Virve Krimm, a capable and talented translator who had already translated Dostoyevsky’s Demons as well as other books by classic Russian authors, e.g., Turgenev’s novel Home of the Gentry, his stories and prose poems; she had also been a co-translator of Tolstoy’s War and Peace. In Krimm’s obituary by the Translators’ Section of the Estonian Writers’ Union, her translation of The Brothers Karamazov was highly appreciated. Both translations were made during times free of the prescriptive norms of the Soviet regime. If ideological coercion in the narrower sense of the word (the authorities’ pressure on translators, editors and publishers) is considered, both translations can be regarded as expressions of the translators’ free choice – both were completed in free Estonia. 
 A conspicuous characteristic of Kurfeldt’s translation is her word-for-word reproduction of Dostoyevsky’s phrases or whole syntactic periods, preserving even the word order. The author of the later translation as well as the later editor of Kurfeldt’s translation have clearly tried to actively oppose Kurfeldt’s tendency towards literal translation. Still, the first translator’s “literal translation” cannot be claimed to be an indicator of dilettantism, as Kurfeldt’s attempts to copy Dostoyevsky’s syntax and even punctuation may be viewed as an essential effort to revive the narrator’s changeable, clumsy manner of speech in The Brothers Karamazov.
 This article analyses the narrator’s transmutable discourse, the peculiarity of which is expressed in the inconsistent or unstable style, as well as its translations into Estonian. In the novel, the narrator’s inconsistent speech has an essential function which consists in creating a chaotic, unstable artistic world. Studies of Dostoyevsky’s poetics have often drawn attention to the peculiarity of the narrator’s style and tone in his works. Mikhail Bakhtin noted that the narrator’s word constantly fluctuates between two extremes – the dryly informative, recording word and the word depicting the character. The researchers who have followed or developed Bakhtin’s theoretical conception have also noted that such inconsistent and hesitant narration style approaches, or actually is, non-literary language. As Aage A. Hansen-Löve has shown, the spontaneous or chaotic manner of narration was characteristic of the vanguard or initial period of Russian realism, but it was also preserved in the movement during its later years. Dostoyevsky modelled the type of the “non-professional” narrator as early as in the 1840s. The speech of this narrator is knowingly “non-literary”. The writer’s “carelessness with words” has also been described and analysed in literary studies as a deliberate device realised at different levels of the narrative: in composition (e.g. the stylistic inconsistency in chapter headings), syntax, lexical paradigm, structure of phraseological expressions and deviations from language norms.
 In this article, the Estonian translations are viewed in comparison with the source text on several microstylistic levels: participial constructions, repetition of words and word stems, modal words, diminutives, phraseological units, deviation from grammatical norms. The comparative analysis of the translations in the article does not attempt to characterise the translations in full, but only discusses the key tendencies in rendering the narrator’s unstable speech. The theoretical basis for the analysis derives from the virtual model of different translation types presented in Peeter Torop’s article “Tõlkeloo koostamise printsiibid” (“Principles of compiling translation history”, 1999).
 In conclusion, it appears that Kurfeldt’s translation is a text dominated by an orientation towards the expressive plane of the source text. The word order in sentences, punctuation marks, modal words and their positions in the text are rendered exactly. Still, the translation is inconsistent at the microstylistic level: the translator tries to replace functional repetitions occuring in the text with synonyms, changes participial constructions into subordinate clauses, and presents participles as verbs in the third person; in a number of cases Kurfeldt also omits words and phrases. The edited translation has undergone essential changes in its turn – the editor has striven for stylistically correct, fluent, “proper” speech which sometimes remains rather far from the original.
 Krimm’s translation has a considerably more complicated structure. Initially, it can be said that Krimm’s translation is oriented simultaneously towards the content plane of the source text, i.e. towards lexical and semantic precision, and sometimes also towards an equivalence with the rhythmic and intonational level of the expression plane of the original. Still, the precision of translating other levels of the expression plane of the original depends on the essentiality of the translated elements in the structure of the novel. Similarly to Kurfeldt, Krimm does not attempt to preserve diminutives, as these grammatical forms are not characteristic of the Estonian language. Thus, opting for an orientation mainly towards the expressive plane of the target text, Krimm continues many aspects of her personal tradition of translating Russian classics from the second half of the 20th century. Choosing the expression plane of the target text as a dominant was characteristic of many other Estonian translators in the Soviet period, as such a translation strategy compensated for the lack of political freedom. 
 The conclusions of the article concern only the recreation of the narrator’s uneven speech in the Estonian translations of The Brothers Karamazov by Kurfeldt and Krimm and, at this stage, do not expand to encompass other layers of the complicated structure of Dostoyevsky’s novel in the texts by the two translators. The article serves as the beginning of a study: further, both translations could be viewed in a broader ideological context, considering the dependence of concrete translation solutions on the translation norms of the 1930s, the normative requirements for literary translation in the 21st century, problems of editing of translations, as well as aspects related to political, literary, linguistic, intermedial and other translation-related contexts.
In the 19th century, broad functional development begins in the field of styles, where there is an even greater stability of linguistic norms, the increase in national characteristics and internal capabilities of the language, as well as the widespread use of various stylistic methods in speech, which they begin to record in dictionaries. The relevance of the study is explained by the interest in the dialectal vocabulary of the Tatar language, as one of the components of the lexical fund of bilingual dictionaries of the 19th century. The purpose of the study is to determine the role of dialect words in the system of Tatar speech of the 19th century, as one of the Turkic languages. In the course of the study, the authors studied the modern works of Russian and foreign authors on linguistics, lexicography; the dialectal material recorded in the Russian-Tatar dictionaries of the 19th century is analyzed; comparisons are made between the dictionary by M. Kashgari and the modern Tatar language.
Pantun merupakan seni pengucapan lisan masyarakat Melayu dahulu yang dicipta dengan penuh ketertiban dan berhati-hati. Segala yang dilahirkan melalui pantun adalah berupa nasihat, dengan berbagai-bagai ragam bahasa yang tinggi dan bernilai sastera. Penggunaan pantun sebagai salah satu cara halus dan sopan dalam menyampaikan sesuatu hasrat yang terbuku di hati telah menjadikan pantun sebagai suatu bentuk bahasa yang indah dan unik. Pemilihan dan penggunaan bentuk kata dalam pantun amat berkait rapat dengan pemikiran masyarakat Melayu yang sentiasa menggunakan unsur alam sebagai perlambangan dalam memperkatakan sesuatu. Oleh itu, fokus utama kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti dan menganalisis simbol ‘bunga’ yang terdapat dalam pantun kategori nasihat berdasarkan buku Kurik Kundi Merah Saga (KKMS). Kajian berbentuk kualitatif ini mengaplikasikan teori semantik dengan kaedah inkuisitif yang merupakan gabungan di antara teori relevan dengan maklumat baru budaya setempat. Gabungan Rangka Rujuk Silang (RRS) dengan maklumat budaya mendalam mampu menghasilkan penghuraian makna kiasan Melayu sehingga ke akal budi penuturnya. Dapatan kajian yang diperoleh menunjukkan bahawa simbol bunga dalam penciptaan pantun mendukung makna tersirat yang lazimnya berfungsi sebagai nasihat dan teguran kepada masyarakat. Simbol “bunga” bukan sahaja mempunyai pelbagai maksud yang tersendiri, namun mampu memperlihatkan daya kreativiti masyarakat Melayu mengaplikasikan konsep “bunga” dengan perilaku, benda, perkara dan peristiwa yang berlaku di sekitar kehidupan manusia. The pantun is a classical Malay poetry form that created with full of etiquette and norms. All was born through ‘pantun’ is in the advice, with the range of high diversity of languages and literary value. Pantun is one of very fine ways to express feeling which make the pantun language unique and beautiful. Every words chosen in Pantun phrases has its own aesthetical and lexical functions, which are very much related to the way thinking among the Malay people, who always refer to surrounding world as a symbolic way to express their own feeling. Therefore, the objective of this study is to identify the symbol of “bunga” in the Malay pantun based on book Kurik Kundi Merah Saga (KKMS). This qualitative research applied semantic theory with inquisitive method which is a combination between relevance theories of local culture with new information. A combination between the applications of Bridging Cross Reference (RRS) along with the broad cultural information will be able to produce various interpretation of Malay proverbs up to its ingenuity. The findings obtained indicated that, the symbol of “bunga” in pantun has its own meaning that are used to express feeling. The symbol “bunga” does not carry its own lexical meaning, but also reveal the creativity of Malay people in applying the concept of “bunga” with people’s behaviors or attitude, things, matters and events revolved around their life.
Bilingual children show more variation in their language development than monolingual children, a fact that has been linked to their experience with their languages. Bilingual language experience also varies more than monolingual children's, both in terms of how much they hear the language spoken around them (exposure) and how much they speak the language themselves (production). This dissertation investigates the following aspects of the relationship between bilinguals’ language experience and development which are not well-understood: how children’s language production relates to their proficiency in that language, how children’s language exposure relates to receptive versus expressive and lexical versus grammatical skill, and how factors such as social context, cognates, working memory and indirect exposure contribute to bilingual proficiency. I investigate language experience and English proficiency in young school-aged bilinguals acquiring French and English in France. I use data from parental and child interviews to estimate English exposure – how much children regularly hear English – and two facets of English production – output, or how regularly children speak in English, and inter-speaker code-switching, which refers to how regularly children respond in French when spoken to in English. Those measures are then related to English proficiency scores from a picture-identification task, a picture-naming task, and a sentence repetition task targeting grammatical structures ranging in difficulty. The first objective of this study is to better understand bilingual children’s language production as it relates to their language proficiency. I find that how much children switch to speaking in French when addressed in English (inter-speaker code-switching) is closely related to all concurrent English proficiency scores and that this relationship is independent of and stronger than proficiency’s relationship with exposure. The more children switch to French when spoken to in English, the lower they score on all proficiency measures, receptive and expressive vocabulary, and sentence repetition, even when holding their level of English exposure constant. The second objective of this study is to investigate possible limits to the general pattern found in a large body of research on bilingual exposure, which is that lesser exposure leads to lesser skill in that language. First, language exposure may affect receptive skills less than expressive skills. Second, grammatical knowledge may also be less closely related to exposure than lexical knowledge. There are conflicting findings in the literature. My findings are consistent with a weak relationship between receptive skills and language exposure in bilingual children. Despite having lesser exposure to English (34% of their total language exposure), children in this study did not show a relation between variation in exposure and their English receptive vocabulary scores. In these children, the relationship between exposure and grammatical proficiency was similar to that with lexical proficiency. The third objective is to investigate additional contributors to bilingual proficiency. Previous research suggests that children’s socioeconomic status (SES), the status of the languages they speak, and the existence of cognates in their languages make contributions to bilingual children’s proficiency, and may in turn modulate the effect of diminished language exposure (e.g. Cobo-Lewis, Pearson, Eilers, & Umbel, 2002a; 2002b; Thordardottir, 2011). My results suggest that SES and high prestige of the languages being acquired may partially mitigate – though not eliminate – the effect of diminished exposure on bilinguals’ home language proficiency. Similar to findings for other bilingual children from mid- to high-SES backgrounds, these children showed age-related growth in English proficiency, and their English receptive skill differed minimally from monolingual norms. However, the effect of lesser exposure to English can be seen more clearly in their expressive skills, which were lower than monolingual norms and were predicted by variation in their English exposure. The effect of cognates in French and English was also investigated in terms of the advantage they conferred on my measures of lexical proficiency. This effect was significant in both receptive and expressive measures; thus, I conclude that the presence of cognates may also mitigate the effect of bilingual exposure. Finally, this investigation also examines additional individual factors that can influence language proficiency, but which have rarely been taken into account in studies of bilingual proficiency and both its relationship to exposure and production. Specifically, variation in children’s working memory and their exposure to language through overhearing adult conversation have both been linked to language learning in monolingual contexts but are not well understood in the context of bilingual development. In this study, verbal and visuospatial working memory were positively related to English proficiency scores. Indirect exposure from overheard English spoken between parents was not related to proficiency scores when holding direct English exposure from parents constant. However, indirect exposure was related to how much children produce English themselves to their parents, even while holding direct exposure constant, indicating that language use between parents may influence children’s language production with parents. This study contributes to our understanding of how bilingual language exposure and production relate to bilingual language proficiency in the following ways: first and most importantly, it adds to the small but growing literature that shows a strong link between bilingual children’s own production of a language and their lexical and grammatical skill in that language. It is also the first to my knowledge to find that a measure of children’s language production, inter-speaker code-switching, is negatively related not only to expressive but also to receptive lexical skill in the language that children switch from. Secondly, the finding that children’s English exposure is unrelated to their English receptive skill (but related to age, indicating continuing growth in these children) affirms exposure’s differential relationship with receptive versus expressive skills. It also documents a limited role for exposure in a new population (French-English bilinguals in France), supporting the role of cognates, socioeconomic status of children, and high social prestige of languages being acquired in mitigating the effect of bilingual exposure. Finally, in finding an independent contribution of working memory to lexical and grammatical skill in bilinguals, it highlights that these measures should be considered when investigating variation in bilingual proficiency.
The article presents a study of the consequences of digitalization of modern Russian education and public life in terms of its impact on the Russian language and its native speakers. In the course of it two opposite estimates were revealed. One point of view considers this influence destructive, making the language primitive, not independent and filled with borrowings. The other one considers the Internet and digitalization as a whole as a means of developing, enriching and updating the Russian language, making it live and modern. Purism and anti-purism are also evident in the differences between conflict and non-conflict-related practices of digital hygiene in the field of communication, including those in educational environments. The Internet language and Internet discourse are either excluded from educational environments or are becoming one of the trends of their development in the conditions of digitalization. The fundamental principle of the research is the principle of anthropocentrism (as opposed to media centrism), which is expressed in the idea of language as a practice that implements the connection between a person and the world, where the media act only as intermediaries, tools. The leading method is trendwatching, i.e. detecting trends in the transformation of the Russian language through content analysis of the blogosphere -a special communication space on the Internet. In addition, the paper used a structural approach and transformational analysis to the study of language, which allowed us to identify the features of the blogosphere, where the Internet discourse unfolds. Among the features of the blogosphere the following ones were noted: cognitivity, interactivity, variability, polyphony, creativity, simulation and hyperreality. The descriptive method was used to determine the mechanisms of changing the Russian language under the influence of the Internet, including: lexical, represented by neologisms and erratives; semantic, including abbreviations and acronyms; and cognitive, which include metaphors, metonymies and lituratives. The selected mechanisms, on the one hand, expand the boundaries of cognitive existence, and on the other, lead to the loss of the possibility of full-fledged transmission and understanding of meanings. Finally, the pragmalinguistic method allowed us to justify the need to develop constructive practices of digital hygiene in the field of network and non-network communication, to determine their repertoire, characteristics and educational potential. The author concludes that digital hygiene practices based on the idea of the conventionality of network and non-network communication norms are insufficiently studied and widespread in educational environments, and that one-dimensional ideas about the vandal influence of Internet discourse on the Russian language are rejected.
As Susan Xu Yun describes in her latest book Translation of Autobiography, even though in Singapore “many people have had the practical experience in translation,” “translation has never been thought of as a respectable pursuit” (14–15). It is a common problem that people do not treat translation seriously, thus translated text sometimes shows awkward deviation or distortion. Inspired by the different “feels” (210) in reading the English and Chinese versions of Lee Kuan Yew's autobiography, Xu explores the worlds created by translation's source text and target text. Borrowing from multiple disciplines, Xu establishes her own interdisciplinary theoretical framework exclusively for autobiography, with which she discovers stylistic differences between the English autobiography Lee Kuan Yew, My Lifelong Challenge: Singapore Bilingual Journey (Challenge hereafter) and the Chinese counterpart 《李光耀, 我一生的挑战:新加坡双语之路》 (Li Guang Yao, Wo Yisheng de Tiaozhan: Xinjiapo Shuangyu zhi Lu, Tiaozhan hereafter) by comparing the linguistic indicators in both texts. In doing so, Xu not only adopts a comprehensive approach to analyzing autobiography and its translation, but also exposes a ubiquitous problem about the translator's manipulation of the author's original ideas.Xu follows a careful process in forming her stylistic methodology. Every step has its powerful theoretical basis, able to stand scrutiny. To begin with, she presents the background of the simultaneous publishing of Challenge and Tiaozhan. People usually believe that Lee Kuan Yew wrote both himself, while Xu presents strong evidence showing Tiaozhan is a translation worked out by a group of translators and editors. Thus, she explicitly “posit[s] Tiaozhan as the assumed translation of Challenge” (12), setting the premise of her research. As theoretical preparation, she first devises four pairs of opposition to affirm autobiography's “multi-dimensioned nature” (205) and addresses its social function in conveying a particular ideology. Then she narrows down and borrows from several linguistic schools to build the most appropriate framework for her stylistic analysis of autobiography, in which deviant linguistic features are the central element for formal and functional study of the sociocultural context. In addition, she adopts a fable-plot-text narrative structure for autobiography to clarify its narrative communicative model. The linguistic features would serve as key evidence in detecting the narrator's and character's “point of view” (51), and they also function as signals of the interaction between the narrator's consciousness and the reader's consciousness, helping to perceive the emotional and ideological effects on the reader. With a completed framework, Xu analyzes and compares Challenge and Tiaozhan as critical cases displaying the translator's manipulation of the narrative situation.Xu's research sets out from a redefinition of autobiography, which “is not a simple, unitary genre” (39). Autobiography, in Xu's comparison with other types of life-writing, possesses four pairs of binary oppositions—“objectivity and subjectivity, comprehensibility and exceptionality, public and private, truth and myth” (29), but in varying degrees. Xu investigates the mainstream theoretical strands in autobiography study and addresses the dearth of “a multi-faceted and interdisciplinary framework” (39). In the second chapter, she offers a possible solution by establishing an integrated framework. A central notion of the framework is the formalist term “foregrounding,” meaning formal distinctiveness in the language of autobiography. Xu zeros in on the defamiliarization effect of “foregrounding” and turns to Geoffrey N. Leech and Mick Short's checklist to pinpoint specific “deviant linguistic features” (47) and their functions. The checklist consists of four subcategories of linguistic features—“lexical categories,” “grammatical categories,” “figures of speech,” and “context and cohesion” (48), each with illustrations connecting specific linguistic aspects to specific sociocultural contexts. Another tool is Hallidayan meaning-oriented functional grammar, in which the textual, ideational, and interpersonal functions of language coexist to satisfy users' “communicative needs” (49). Similar to Leech and Short's checklist, Halliday and Matthiessen's theory focuses on linguistic features and their reflection of one's personal or social relationships, with the ideational function playing a prominent role in research for the ideological significance of autobiography. Further exploration of the typology of “point of view” in autobiography is based on Roger Fowler's enquiry into public or personal discourse in linguistic usage, which aims to discover the emotional impacts and aesthetic effects on readers. The integrated framework is then applied to “foregrounding” in Challenge to show its particular defamiliarization effect and social meaning.The third chapter steers the research into narratological study. After comparing and analyzing four types of narrative structure, Xu chooses to employ a “fabula-plot-text” model for her research to avoid possible confusion (69). Each of its three layers has corresponding participants of discourse, namely implied author and implied reader for narrative text, narrator and narratee for plot, and characters for fabula. Xu agrees with Leech and Short's three-level discourse structure developed from Seymour Chatman's narrative-communicative situation (real author&#ξ2192;implied author&#ξ2192;narrator&#ξ2192; narratee&#ξ2192;implied reader&#ξ2192;real reader) and combines it with her “fabula-plot-text” narrative structure. Leech and Short's discourse structure fuses author–reader and implied author–implied reader into the top level, corresponding to text in narrative structure; the second level contains the discourse of narrator and narratee, which happens in plot; and the bottom level, the discourse of character, is placed within fabula. She points out that autobiographical readers often take it for granted that the author, implied author, first person narrator (I-narrator), and I-character share one “point of view.” To correct the misconception, Xu notes that the implied author of autobiography is a persona portrayed by the narrative text while the real author “does not have a direct appearance” (76). The implied author holds the complete information and “tricks the readers by withholding information” (79), but the I-narrator, restricted by his or her perspective, sometimes “reveals a lack of precision and assertiveness” (79). The I-character in the story world suffers even more restrictions in focalization and mind state. As protagonist, an I-character might be limited by his or her age and experience in the story time, easily distinguished from the retrospective I-narrator with more superiority. Regarding the four distinctive communication roles in autobiography, Xu proposes two hypothetical models of narrative situation for them. One is an “ideal narrative situation” (83) where each role's “point of view” is completely included in its superior's (e.g., I-character's “point of view” is part of I-narrator's, I-narrator's is part of implied author's, implied author's is part of real author's) and each inferior role can reliably represent part of its superior. Another model is that each role has only the main part of its “point of view” embedded in the superior's, with the remaining part deviating from the superior's “point of view,” and might give rise to “significant deviation from the real author's attitude and belief” (83). In later chapters, the hypothetical models will be tested in the case study to show how the translator alternates the real author's attitude.After Xu's discussion of the roles in narrative situations, the book's focus shifts to specific linguistic indicators reflecting each particular role's “point of view.” Xu reviews “point of view” theory from psychological, visual, ideological, and linguistic aspects. Among the diverse theoretical approaches to these issues, she selects for her autobiography study several “important narrative devices or linguistic features that function to ascribe ‘point of view’ to the character or the narrator” (95). The methodology is amplified in chapter 4. This study of “Point of view” is complemented by Monika Fludernik's reader-oriented cognitive model, which is about how narratorial consciousness resorts to particular language schema for ruling the reader's consciousness. According to Xu's study of three key linguistic indicators, the reader's consciousness is activated by deixis (e.g., person deixis—I and you, temporal deixis—now and then); the speaker's subjectivity is exposed by modalities like can, will, and ought to; whereas speech and thought presentation implies that the narrator's and character's consciousness “intermingle” (132)—the narrator's consciousness is indicated by narrative report of speech/thought act and indirect speech/thought, and the character's consciousness can be perceived in direct speech/thought and free indirect speech/thought. Regrettably, the concept of “consciousness” and its relation with the whole stylistic framework is not fully explicated, causing a little ambiguity in the book's logical structure. The end of this chapter comes to the final stage of Xu's whole stylistic approach, presenting two specific effects created by the interplay of the character's and narrator's consciousness: empathy and irony. In her analysis of linguistic indicators in Challenge, different roles in narrative situation have no discordance in consciousness. They convey consistent ideological and emotional effect and form a “seamless conflation of I-character, I-narrator and implied author” (132), fitting well into Xu's first hypothesis—“ideal narrative situation.”The last two chapters are applications of Xu's stylistic approach to the Chinese version of Tiaozhan. Inspired by Giuliana Schiavi's concept of implied translator as a moderator of the fictional world, Xu defines the “implied translator” of Tiaozhan as “the voices of editors, journalists, translators and proofreaders who work for the Press and share a set of presuppositions with regard to the target readers and culture” (139). Chapter 5 first delves into Lefevere's concept of rewriting, which is “adaptation and manipulation of the original works” (143) to fulfil an ideological and poetical purpose. Translation is considered by Lefevere as the most influential type of rewriting. “Rewriting” consists of two control factors, one of which is “professional” (143), including identities within the literary system like translators, critics, and reviewers. “Professionals” usually have to sacrifice principles, such as accuracy or authenticity, to meet the requirements imposed by another factor, “patronage”—persons or entities like a religious body, a political party, publishers, and media who are “more interested in the ideology than the poetics” (143). Such a phenomenon is typical in Singapore; therefore, we can better understand the poetics chosen by Tiaozhan's translator. Analysis of Tiaozhan is carried out through Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies model—concentrating on translations first and then “map[ping] them onto their assumed sources in order to identify the shifts and translation relationship” (138). Chapter 5 then concerns itself with Tiaozhan's similarity to Challenge and explores how the implied translator manipulates the text to make it politically correct. Xu classifies the degrees of similarities between Challenge and Tiaozhan into three types: zero to low (Type I), moderate (Type II), and high (Type III), among which Types I and III are the focus of her analysis. Type I texts in Tiaozhan usually have some deviant features that are absent in Challenge, like overlexicalization, syntactic foreignness, circumlocution, and so on. The implied translator has introduced some semantic differences, which “laboriously and passionately construct a positive image of the protagonist” and meanwhile lead to “confusion among the readers” (156). Translation of Type III text, even though faithful, transmits the distinctive voice from narrator or character as well. The translation reveals “passive” (157) voice when the implied translator makes efforts to “mitigate the harsh tone” (158) of the narrator or when he or she shows “minor intervention” (158) in building his or her positive impression. “Active” voice appears in the rewriting or reorganizing of the original text to please the possible readers of the target text. Both voices show the implied translator's strong intention to “ensure political correctness and minimize any imminent negative impact on the protagonist's image” (164). It is very helpful to introduce the concept of implied translator in analyzing the translation, although Xu's interpretation seems to mix the use of “implied translator” and “translator,” which might lead to misunderstanding of the communication model.Chapter 6 delves further into the “point of view” effect of irony and empathy in Tiaozhan. Xu adds the translator's role to narrative situations as a mediating factor. She also introduces the notion of unreliability put forward by Wayne Booth and developed by Chatman: a narrator is unreliable when he or she does not follow the norms of the work. Unreliability can be “distinguished between two forms of ‘untrustworthiness’ with different ironized targets” (170), from which two types of translator's manipulation arise. The first type “fallible filtration” happens in the narrator's layer, where the irony or empathy is created, retained, or erased by the conscious-translator's manipulation of the narrative voice. Mapping examples in Tiaozhan with their source texts, Xu argues that the “fallible filtration” appears only as “minute factual discrepancies” (184). Another type of “unreliable narration” (170) is the manipulation of the implied author so that he or she conveys ironic messages to the implied reader “at the expense of the narrator” (170). Compared with “fallible filtration,” this second type of unreliability is a significant misrepresentation made by an unconscious translator. In complying with ideological requirements, the translator unintentionally creates a discordant narration and evokes negative results like factual discrepancy, attitudinal inconsistence, and ideological discordance. Xu has a clear attitude toward what she regards as the “unreliable narration” of translated text: even though the translator is making such changes to maintain the protagonist's positive image or to get on well with the target culture, ironizing the narrator is not an effective choice. Readers would feel uncomfortable in front of the attitudinal inconsistence and emotional contradictions, and they may begin to doubt the trustworthiness of the narrator. Consequently, the autobiography treated this way cannot realize its social function well. Seen from a theoretical perspective, both types of unreliability interrupt the “reader's access to the protagonist's and narrator's consciousness,” “representing an image that deviates from the real author” (202). In Tiaozhan, Xu finds out that the implied author, narrator, and character respectively have part of their “point(s) of view” deviated from the real author's. She concludes that Tiaozhan does not fit the ideal narrative situation of Challenge, because the translator has “effected a significant transformation” (202) in “point of view.”As an outgrowth of Xu's PhD thesis completed in 2014, a flaw of Translation of Autobiography might be the lack of timeliness. The narrative communication model of Chatman, one of the bases of Xu's hypotheses of autobiographical narrative situation, has recently been proved insufficient. In 2017, rhetorical narratologist James Phelan has brought up a rhetorical revision of narrative communication. Phelan's new model moves beyond classical narratology for various resources other than narrator and character. He claims a two-way “actual/implied author&#ξ00AΧ;&#ξ00AE;resources&#ξ00AΧ;&#ξ00AE;authorial and actual audience” model, in which resources can be occasion, paratexts, narrator(s), characters/dialogue, free indirect discourse (FID), and so on (Phelan 7). Chatman's model, according to Phelan, is just a “special case” (5) of Phelan's rhetorical model, in which “the implied author outsources just about everything to the narrator or to the nonnarrated mimesis” (10). With Phelan's model, Xu's study of translator manipulation could be extended to more types of resources other than narrator. However, as a type of nonfiction, autobiography has to “exclude fictionality and encompasses only historical facticity and authorial subjectivities” (26). Phelan's model may not perfectly fit the particular genre. Modifications are inevitable. For example, Harry E. Shaw's response to Phelan casts doubt on the necessity of “two-way dialogue between authors and readers” (74). The problem seems more salient in autobiographical narrative, where readers are more likely to be receivers and are not required to cooperate with author. Therefore, the opposite direction in the model may not be necessary in autobiography study. In a word, to improve Xu's model, Phelan's revision would be an imperative reference, while the unique genre of autobiographical narrative should also be considered. I believe with the tool kits from rhetorical narrative, research on translation of autobiography could be further amplified.“Future historians may one day characterize ours as the era of Everybody's Autobiography” (DiBattista and Wittman 1). Autobiography study is receiving increased attention, but Xu is among the few forerunners who have considered the narrative deviance introduced by an autobiography's translator. Translation of Autobiography makes this contribution through its excellent attention to linguistic textual signals and narrative framework. The book offers a comprehensive approach with a strong theoretical basis, opening a new research path for translation, literary study, and linguistics. It can be highly recommended to scholars in these fields. They may not only learn Xu's keen insights on a new topic but also benefit from her rigorous construction of methodology.
Введение. Влияние современных медиа на мировоззрение и поведенческие установки социума остается малоизученным. Поведенческие нормы, транслируемые в формате ток-шоу, являются основаниями оценочных высказываний, соотносятся с ценностями разных типов. Диалектические отношения компонентов аксиологического комплекса обусловливают целесообразность их совместного рассмотрения. Цель статьи – выявить и описать поведенческие нормы, оценки человека и ценности социума, репрезентированные в одной из передач ток-шоу «Андрей Малахов. Прямой эфир». Материал и методы. Используется лингвоаксиологический анализ – семантический анализ единиц разных уровней языка и категорий дискурсивной природы, направленный на выявление нормативно-оценочных значений в сфере поведения человека. Этапами анализа являются определение типичных средств выражения данных значений и формирование на их основе фактологической базы исследования, классификация высказываний по соотнесенности с определенными видами ценностей, реконструкция соответствующих поведенческих норм, интерпретация результатов с учетом сведений об особенностях формата ток-шоу. Результаты и обсуждение. Наряду с лексико-фразеологическими единицами языка, оценочно-нормативные значения регулярно выражаются маркерами деонтической модальности, грамматическими средствами укрупнения масштаба ситуации, лексико-грамматическими показателями отступления от нормы; кроме того, в их трансляции участвуют выводные знания. В репертуаре ценностей преобладают утилитарно-материальные. Поведенческие нормы коррелируют с традиционными ценностями разных социальных групп и ценностями постсоветского времени. Влияние формата передачи на представление аксиологических значений заключается в релятивном (от противного) описании норм поведения и в уровне их обобщенности, в жесткой сбалансированности оценок по знаку, в преобладании личных ценностей над общественными, утилитарно-материальных – над духовными. Предложена и апробирована методика описания аксиологического комплекса «поведенческие нормы, оценки человека и ценности социума», репрезентированного в медийном тексте, имитирующем дискуссию о социально значимой проблеме. Заключение. Сделанные выводы коррелируют с результатами, полученными в работах по другим гуманитарным направлениям. Вследствие пресуппозитивной природы семантики нормы ее лингвистическая реконструкция предполагает внимание к неспециализированным языковым средствам, а также явлениям дискурсивной природы. Introduction. The influence of modern media on the worldview and behavioral attitudes of society remains poorly understood. Behavioral norms, broadcast in the format of talk shows, are the basis for evaluative statements, are correlated with the values of different types. The dialectical relations of the components of the axiological complex determine the feasibility of their joint consideration. The goal is to identify and describe behavioral norms, assessments of a person and the values of society represented in one of the programs of the talk show “Live with Andrey Malakhov”. Material and methods. Linguoaxiological analysis is a semantic analysis of units of different language levels and categories of discursive nature, aimed at identifying normative and estimated values in the field of human behavior. The stages of the analysis are the identification of typical means of expressing these values and the formation on their basis of a factual basis for research, the classification of statements according to their relation to certain types of values, the reconstruction of relevant behavioral norms, the interpretation of the results taking into account information about the features of the talk show format. Results and discussion. Along with the lexical and phraseological units of the language, estimated and normative values are regularly expressed by markers of deontic modality, grammatical means of enlarging the scale of the situation, lexical and grammatical indicators of deviation from the norm; moreover, in their translation involved knowledge. Utility-material prevail in the repertoire of values. Behavioral norms correlate with traditional values of different social groups and post-Soviet values. The influence of the transmission format on the presentation of axiological meanings lies in the relational (from the negative) presentation of the norms of behavior and in the level of their generality, in a strict balance of sign ratings, in the prevalence of personal values over social, utilitarianmaterial – over spiritual. A methodology for describing the axiological complex “behavioral norms, assessments of a person and the values of socie-ty”, presented in a media text imitating a discussion about a socially significant problem, is proposed and tested. Conclusion. The findings correlate with the results obtained in works in other humanitarian areas. Due to the presuppositive nature of the norm semantics, its linguistic reconstruction presupposes attention to non-specialized language means, as well as discursive phenomena.
This article analyses the typical features of the influence of the Russian language on Belarusian stage speech. Contemporary theatre, concerts, and other cultural events have played an important role in the popularization in the Belarusian language of misbalanced bilingualism. According to the transcripts of modern actors, emcees, and musicians recorded in theatres, music clubs, literature museums, and culture centres between 2012 and 2019, different fragments and types of mixing of Belarusian and Russian are revealed. Firstly, we notice switching of language code, which is used for famous phrases from literature, cinema, etc., or shows someone else’s speech. Secondly, we have examples of Russian language interference in Belarusian at the lexical, grammatical, and phonetic levels. So-called trasianka-distorted Russian language according to the special features of the Belarusian orthoepyis observed as a specific kind of interfered speech. In addition, various variants of hard mixing of systems and subsystems, functional styles of two languages (especially including of dialect words and forms), jargon lexis, and special units of alternative norms of the Belarusian language tarashkevitsa are shown. This research notes that mixed speech is a result not only of bilingual interaction, but the decline in the standard of stage speech. It is noted that trasianka helps to create a comic or negative character image on stage.
The article deals with the features of linguo-pragmatical contents and ways of its expression in the text of the professional ethics code. It is described the main linguo-pragmatical categories of the ethical code and come to light modal meanings and means of their expression. The ethical code represents the specific genre establishing norms and rules of the office (professional) behavior based on the conventional system of moral ideals. The main objective of the ethical code creation is prevention of conflict situations and an illegal behavior. Standard code of ethics is considered as the coherent text representing a dichotomizing division of a speech product into the dynamic process of the language activity and result of this activity. The significant elements of pragmatics of Standard code of ethics are some categories of a modality and an appraisal as they form pragmatical contents of texts of the similar genres. Means of expression of the modality are the verbs with the meaning of need, the lexical and phraseological means being based on the modal meaning of approval / disapproval. It is allocated the values which became a basis for formation of a certain corporate picture of the world of public servants of the Russian Federation and municipal employees, for example, impartiality, conscientiousness, correctness, tolerance, and respect. It is come to the conclusion that the understanding of a lexical meaning of a word and its pragmatical opportunities are defined with an individual (corporate) picture of the world and cannot coincide with nationwide.
The purpose of the article is to analyse and identify the linguistic and stylistic features of the origin and translation of French slang, taking into account the peculiarities of word formation. Research methods: comparison, classification, systematization, observation, analysis of the results of researchers on the problem of the study and expert evaluation. Results: the article is a study of phonetic–morphological and semantic–stylistic features of argotic vocabulary in contemporary French language. The author emphasized that the developed national language is not monolithic, but rather constitutes the set of forms in which it exists and is manifested in a hierarchically organized multi–stage system. The possibility of transformation method applying, translation combined method, as well as the techniques of variative, contextual, hyper– and hyponomic substitutions, calculations, descriptive translation, interpretation and compensation is characterized. The influence of modern computer technologies on modern youth slang trends is noted. Basic ways of formation of slang words and the phraseology of the youth speech are analyzed. The specific directions of future translation, contrast, lexicological, lexicographic, stylistic studies have been identified: the translation of the language of films with an argot component, modern youth argot, argotisms of national–territorial variants of the French language; bilingual dictionaries creation of argotic vocabulary; theory and practice of forming translation competence in the field of social dialectology. The importance of considering the content and quality content of youth slang under the influence of modern social processes is emphasized. Conclusions: The conducted research has shown that the argotic vocabulary can be considered as a special lexical subsystem of spoken language, which is characterized by a steady tendency to penetrate into higher linguistic levels due to its phonetic–morphological and semantic features. The author separately considers the question of existence and functioning of the French youth language, the causes of such a concept and how it is used in the language of modern youth, as well as the conditions and means of creating a French youth language, which is relevant when translating from French. The relationship of cultural features of youth slang is revealed, which manifests itself in opposition to social patterns and norms.
In this paper we shall analyze several examples of morphological and syntactic calques taken from the Russian language, used in oral and written communication by the Romanian-speaking population in the historical province Bessarabia, the present-day Republic of Moldova. Unlike semantic calques, the morphological loan translations we have identified in source texts are less numerous, because the morphological structure of the language is not so receptive to foreign influences as its lexical structure. In terms of the morphological loan translations, we have chosen to contrastively analyze the forms resulting from calquing the reflexive diathesisin Russian. The constructions with an obligatory reflexive are taken after the Russian language, when, in fact, the literary Romanian language norm often recommends the use of the active voice.The syntactic loan translations we have identified are much more numerous as compared to the morphological ones and, most of the times, they reside in imitating case relationships according to the Russian language pattern
The European Union as a political and economic project characterised by its supranational nature and cultural and linguistic diversity provides a broad research field for translation studies. The now 27 Member States speak with a single voice in every EU legislative act through 24 official EU languages, an achievement only possible because translation plays a key role in legislative procedure that requires an intense negotiation to attain versions of EU legislative texts equally authentic. Indeed, EU target texts as a genre conform to specific conventions and norms, and fulfil the expectation of the translation commissioner, i.e., the EU Institution commissioning the job. Furthermore, language contact through translation of EU legislation gives rise to standardised lexical variants known as Eurolects. Bearing this in mind and appealing to Even-Zohar and Toury’s framework to put EU translation in context, using a corpus linguistics approach, it is our aim to learn the influence of the Portuguese Eurolect on national legislative legal language through the specialised phraseology of environmental law between 1985 and 2019. This presentation will present the criteria selected to build a comparable corpus for this project. The corpus is composed of 405 directives (C1), the primary version of the Portuguese Eurolect and product of interlinguistic translation, 368 national implementing measures (C2), which result from transposition or rewriting, and disperse legislation without connection to the EU (C3). According to our knowledge, this is the first attempt to study the Eurolect phenomenon in the Portuguese language as part of an ongoing doctoral research project.
The article examines the use of grammatical archaisms in the New Latin poetic text based on the historical poem by Simon Pekalid De bello Ostrogiano (Krakow, 1600). It consistently reflects one of the most important properties of poetic speech – the implementation of phonetic-grammatical and lexical-word-formation capabilities of the language system and it clearly shows the dynamic nature of language elements at all levels of Latin. It is determined that the main factors that influenced the adoption of grammatical archaisms were the metric requirements and stylistic canons of the ancient epic. Due to the functions performed in the poetic sphere, the early modern Latin, which owes a flexible language system with a grammatical basis preserved from classical Latin, was characterised by significant variability of the language structure due to the presence of elements of different origin. Belonging to the passive vocabulary of the language, in most cases archaic vocabulary was stylistically marked and it often passed into the category of traditionally poetic. The tradition of the epic genre and the stylistic differentiation of various variants of speech suggested the presence in the epic text of a certain number of archaic morphological forms, as a result of which the stylistic differentiation of inflections-doublets arose in Latin, one of which was archaic. The functioning of archaic forms in the New Latin poetic text has a dual character: as a linguistic unit, archaisms occupy a special place within synchronous relations, but as a stylistic unit they are decoded according to the second, i.e. earlier system of literary language. The use of multi-temporal morphological forms is associated with their poetic function in the language, which has gradually produced certain stylistic norms in the use of grammatical forms over the centuries.
The article deals with reproducing contaminated speech of literary characters in the Ukrainian translation s of J. Steinbeck’s novel "East of Eden" and the play "Hysteria" by Т. Johnson. Contaminated speech (a foreign accent) is a wide-spread stylistic means of characterizing literary characters. The specific nature of the accent remains under the dispute among researchers in translation studies. Some scholars regard the accent as a phonetic phenomenon only. However, our research is based on V. Vinogradov’s statement that accent covers the speech deviations on all language levels. In addition, the important aspect of investigating accents is understanding that an accent is a product of language interference. The literature review contains the works of theoreticians and practitioners of translation studies (A. Fedorov, S. Florin, V. Komissarov, O. Kopyl’na, T. Nekryach, O. Rebrii, S. Vlakhov, etc.). The research relevance is determined by anthropocentric approach to text interpretation, which allows to investigate literary characters as language personalities. The object of the research is the constituents of Spanish and Chinese accents of literary characters. The subject of the research comprises the translation tactics of reproducing the foreign accents. The purpose of the research is to reveal the specific traits and components of the foreign accent of literary characters and to single out the optimal translation tactics for its faithful reproduction in translation. To achieve the aim, the following objectives have been set: to examine the specific features of foreign accents of literary characters and to highlight the specific translation tactics of rendering foreign accents. Results of research. Creative writers resort to imitating foreign accents to create original characters and emphasize their foreign identity. The specific traits of a foreign accent can be represented in fiction in the form of deviations from the literary norm on the phonetic, grammatical, and lexical levels. Reproducing these specific traits can be regarded as a translation challenge difficulties and requires special skill s on the part of translator. According to V. Komissarov, the natural sounding of a foreigner’s speech should be the top priority in accent reproduction. The Ukrainian translations of T. Johnson’s play "Hysteria" and J. Steinbeck’s novel "East of Eden" demonstrate successful reproducing of the Spanish and Chinese accents. While creating the Spanish accent of his character T. Johnson resorted to incorrect use of words, grammatical mistakes, distortion of the phonetic and morphological structure of words. These features of the character’s speech make an integral component of his language personality, which is carefully conveyed by the Ukrainian translator. In order to preserve all motivated deviations from the literary norm, the translator uses the parallel translation. In the absence of appropriate equivalents the translator resorts to compensation by applying distortion of phonetic, morphological, and syntactic norms. All the translation means represented in this translation seem to be optimal for creating a stage dialogue. Salvador Dali’s Spanish sounds natural and easy for audial perception, which is the most important in drama translation. While translating the Chinese accent, Tetiana Nekryach resorts to the parallel translation of phonetic distortions of words. The translation tactics of compensation is applied for rendering the grammatical mistakes in the character’s speech. All translation means are used for embodiment the author’s intent and increasing the impact on readers. Thus, the Chinese accent are reproduced on all language levels, including phonetic, grammatical, and lexical. Originality. The study of approaches to conveying foreign accents of literary characters, considering the specific nature of the accent, represents the research originality. Thus, the phonetic, grammatical, and lexical components of the foreign accents were investigated, and the optimal translation tactics of their rendering were singled out. Conclusions. In conclusion, it should be mentioned that due to the differences in structures of the target and source languages, it is impossible to fully reproduce contaminated speech on the all language levels in translation. Therefore, the translator should find the functional analogues for faithful reproducing a foreign accent. Among the optimal translation tactics of accent reproduction, the parallel translation and compensation are singled out. The perspective of the research lies in further investigation of contaminated speech and comparison between the translation tactics applied in drama and prose translation.
В современных русских говорах, несмотря на воздействие на них норм литературного языка, межкультурную контактность и деформацию в результате воздействия средств массовой информации, постепенное исчезновение диалектов в условиях цивилизации медиа, сохраняется лексическое ядро, в котором особое место занимает лексика нравственно-религиозной сферы. Наличие этого лексического пласта выделяет русский язык среди других в отношении аксиологической акцентированности земного и небесного. В настоящей статье обобщены наблюдения автора, касающиеся состава, семантики, сложения лексических гнезд, составляющих макрополе народного православия, формальной стороны словопроизводства единиц соответствующей лексики на общерусском фоне с привлечением материала, собранного автором статьи в Тамбовской области. Выделены разновидности структурных типов номинаций, определены особенности и приоритеты словообразовательной креативности. Для достижения целей исследования применялись методы сопоставительного, лексического, словообразовательного, компонентного анализа. Despite the influence exerted on them by the literary norms of the Russian language, despite the intercultural contacts promoted by mass media, and despite gradual annihilation of dialects provoked by media-propelled civilization, modern Russian dialects preserve their pivotal lexemes which are mostly related to the sphere of morality and religion. This lexical stratum, the axiological significance of the celestial and the earthly realms, distinguishes the Russian language from other languages. The present article summarizes the author’s ideas related to word formation, to the composition and semantics of lexical clusters of the macrofield of public orthodoxy. The analysis involves the material collected by the author in the Tambov Region. It singles out structural types of nominations, defines the peculiarities and priorities of creative word-formation. To achieve the aim of the research, the author employs such methods as comparative analysis, lexical analysis, word-formation analysis, and componential analysis.
According to the authors of the article, works of fiction that introduce shocking ideas into aesthetic reality fit into the general contemporary discourse of the extreme. Literary texts marked by the extreme are based on the principles of taboos violation which are expressed in the space of creativity as an invasion of forbidden topics, a rethinking of the concept of good and evil, a deviation from the norm of any type (from moral and ethical to linguistic). The material for the analysis is the modern Ural writers’ works of various genre-generic forms: a book of poems “The Gospel of Lucifer” by A. Vavilov (2019), a novel “Department” by A. Salnikov (2018), a play “Claustrophobia” by K. Kostenko (2003). The paper shows how the category of the extreme manifests itself at all levels of the text: from problem-thematic (total alienation from traditional norms of life, identity crisis) to specific methods of world modeling associated with the image of the impaired consciousness of a modern person (zoomorphic code, dead-end space, obligatory motives of aggression) and linguistic extremism, based on prison and militaristic vocabulary, on taboo lexical units of the body bottom. Despite genre-generic difference of the works selected for the analysis, there is a similarity of the methods of depicting modern reality and the worldview of a person within the framework of everyday life combined not only by the extremely unusual (i. e., extreme) but also beyond the limits of the allowable and permissible. This poetics includes a lot of grotesque methods of amplification and redundancy with the help of which the recognizable features of modern reality are sharpened and depicted. © 2020 Institute of History and Archeology of the Ural Branch of RAS. All rights reserved.
The article is based on an understanding of the possible functional and semantic classification of lexical units of the Portuguese language according to a graded criterion, which corresponds to the operational perspective of the semantic application of the language. One of the forms of visualization of grading operations can be a grading scale, or a graduation scale, the possibility of which is supported by the existence of an intuitive perception of a certain sample, a certain point of reference, a certain norm, above and below which are certain zones of units that fall into the grading situation. The author notes that the grading operator as a minimal linguistic variable is not only a marker that specifies the degree of deviation from a certain ordinary level and provides a modification of the value (movement down or up the axiological scale), but also an element of ordering reasoning, expression of opinion, and personal attitude of the Portuguese speaker. The article analyzes operators that belong to the group of high-degree and ultimate-measure graduators. The analysis of the combinability of the operators considered by the author allowed us to distinguish two ways of grading limit features in the Portuguese language: ingerent and extensive. Extensive gain has more to do with the verb, in the amplification of which the orientation of the actants are expressed more explicitly. This allows you to select a special type of gain – actant gain. However, even when grading adjectives, some Portuguese ultimate-measure gradators or graduators are able to participate in extensive models, such as the quantifier pronoun todo, toda (all, entire, whole). In addition to differences in the method of modifying a trait (extensive or inherent) and in the modal part of the value, ultimate measure operators differ in the nature of the trait representation. Some of them represent a trait in statics, regardless of its previous development (absolutamente, inteiramente, totalmente), and others represent the ultimate measure of the trait as the result of its previous development and accumulation (completamente, todo, de todo).
Abstract Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland ( 1865 ) and Through the Looking-Glass ( 1871 ), two linguistic treatises in disguise, create ingenious fantasy worlds where the rules of language and the conventions of communication are turned upside down. What is (semantically) illogical or (pragmatically) inappropriate confounds Alice, who struggles to make sense of nonsense and to keep the order of a polite, rational world in place. In her dialogues with anthropomorphic animals and objects, ambiguity and fallacy coexist with interactive manipulation, while her communicative expectations crumble and comic misunderstandings arise. This article looks into the construction of linguistic and pragmatic transgressions in Carroll’s acclaimed books with a view to unveiling their contribution to impoliteness. On the one hand, the paper analyses the structural mechanisms of wordplay vis-à-vis phonetic, morpho-syntactic and lexical ambiguity. On the other, it examines the pragmatic strategies whereby speech-act infelicities, conversational maxim violations, and bald-on-record clashes contribute to reversing the established conventions of (polite) social interaction. The premise guiding the analysis is that the pervasive existence of double meaning and incongruity in the Alice books underlies not only linguistic phenomena such as punning, neologism, and relexicalisation, but also interactive patterns, in which the expected norms of courteous conduct in social exchanges do not obtain. The antithetical and script-oppositional (hence, humorous) nature of this process defrauds outsider Alice – the victim, but at times the happy recipient, of the uncooperative challenges of this inverted, refracted, teasingly nonsensical world.
The basis of word culture is the language norm. Speech culture is " the degree of reproduction, maturation of language techniques. In addition, he has not only kindness, literacy, but also the skills of accurate and correct application of language techniques, phonetic, spelling, orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, stylistic phenomena,-said M. Balakaev. Therefore, the scientist insists that it is necessary to correctly use words (lexical), correctly compose. Improving the speech culture of the Kazakh language is one of the requirements of national interest. A large sphere of culture of the Kazakh language is the culture of speech, the main regularity of its rise to a higher level is the norm of correct pronunciation. The role of writing and speech culture in the formation of the Kazakh literary language and its relationship to the problems of systematization of spelling rules is studied comprehensively in Kazakh linguistics. Language culture is developed on the basis of recognition of speech culture as national interests, formation of social attitude to speech culture, evaluation of speech culture as the main support of social Sciences and national culture, promotion of speech culture along with the culture of the nation.