Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
18265 papers
of producing an automatic parsing system which will produce a constituent bracketing-and hence a surface-structure tree-for any given sentence or fragment of English.The most technically advanced and hence difficult chapter is a description by Roger Garside and Fanny Leech of the work in progress on the UCREL (Unit for Computer Research on the English Language) parsing system, which it is claimed has already reached approximately 50% accuracy.The statistical basis for the UCREL operation comes from two sources.The first is the tagged Brown corpus, which was produced over a period of ten years or so, beginning with a computer routine which successfully tagged about three quarters of the words in the corpus.The remainder were done manually.The second foundation is a manually parsed random selection of sentences from the LOB corpus, amounting to 50,000 words, or about 4.5%.The product of this parsing was a 'treebank' of over 2000 parsed sentences.Ch. 7 of the book, also by Sampson, describes the parsing scheme he developed for this purpose and the difficulties he encountered in using it with actual sentences drawn from a corpus of 'natural language'.Regrettably this chapter is placed after that of Garside and Leech, though it is essential to an understanding of their work.Other chapters deal with such interesting topics as 'Problems in the automatic parsing of idioms' and 'Dealing with ill-formed English text'.One is left with the impression that a number of intelligent and devoted scholars have made significant progress in a concerted 'effort to teach computers (in certain respects) to be capable of understanding and processing human language' (1).Their success, which is considerable though obviously incomplete, is largely due to their willingness to develop modes of analysis which are neither traditional nor particularly fashionable in today's linguistics.It is the hope and expectation of Leech and his colleagues that their work will be a major contribution to the linguistics and cognitive science of the future.[W.N. FRANCIS, Brown University.] Les predicats nominaux en francais:Les phrases simples a verb support.By JACQUELINE GIRY-
The effects of 2 personality traits, extraversion and neuroticism, on experimental and clinical pain were characterized in a group of myofascial pain dysfunction (MPD) patients. Extraverts did not differ from introverts in visual analogue scale (VAS) sensory or VAS affective ratings of graded 5-sec nociceptive temperature stimuli (43-51 degrees C) nor in VAS sensory-VAS affective relationships related to their clinical pain. However, high extravert patients scored lower on affective inhibition (Pilowsky Illness Behavior Questionnaire; IBQ) compared to low extravert patients. This result is consistent with previous suggestions that extraverts inhibit overt expressions of suffering less than do introverts. High neurotic patients did not differ from low neurotic patients in their VAS sensory ratings of either experimental or clinical pain. Their VAS affective ratings of both types of pain were marginally higher as compared to low neurotic patients. As hypothesized, high neurotic score patients gave higher VAS ratings of emotions related to suffering and scored higher on items related to affective disturbance on the IBQ as compared to low neurotic score patients. Overall, the results indicate that the personality traits of neither extraversion nor neuroticism affect sensory mechanisms of nociceptive processing but appear to exert their influence by means of cognitive processes related to the ways in which people constitute the meanings and implications of pain.
Assessment center ratings made by 22 assessors of 67 candidates for the position of Police Sergeant in a midwestern metropolitan community were analyzed. Additional data of assessor differences in cognitive complexity, assertiveness, participation in consensus discussion, use of schemata, and police background were also investigated for impact upon ratings. Five areas were explored: (1) issues of measurement, models, and reliability; (2) issues of cognitive processes involved in individual ratings; (3) issues of individual differences between assessors in cognitive and communication styles; (4) issues of group processes, influence, and communication; and (5) an integration of these four areas into a composite model of ratings. In the first of these areas, there was a convergence from results of linear structural equation analysis, factor analysis, and MTMM analysis showing the dominance of exercise (context) variance in ratings. However, the model which supplied the best fit to the observed rating data was one in which both exercise (contextual) and ability (dimension) factors were included. Reliability analysis showed differences in obtained reliabilities with those dimensions and exercises that are more commonly understood displaying higher reliabilities. In regard to individual cognitive processes, ratings data and questionnaire responses supported the early development and use by assessors of schemata for overall performance in exercises. Individual differences in cognitive complexity and assertiveness did not affect ratings as hypothesized. Group process and influence effects were investigated by means of Interaction Process Analysis of 95 taped consensus dimension discussions and content analysis of post assessment center questionnaire responses. These analyses supported a progressive stage model of discussion and a tendency for agreement. In an integration of process and individual differences data with rating data into a composite model, linear structural equation analysis (LISREL) suggested a model wherein participation, communication style, and police professional impacted upon the effects of group influence. However, only individual ratings substantially affected final performance evaluations of candidates. Additional research into assessment center processes and continued efforts to link cognitive and group process theory to this methodology are suggested.
At the Humanities Faculty of the Free University of Amsterdam intensive efforts are being made to integrate computer-assisted learning in the curriculum of modern language teaching. The courseware is written in VULCO, an authoring language developed in-house and specifically designed for non-scientific applications. The paper describes a design concept for vocabulary acquisition courseware. The concept is characterized as 'modular', 'integrated' and 'learner-controlled'. The course-ware consists of a number of independent modules such as texts, a lexical knowledge base and various types of exercises. The design is 'integrated' in the sense that vocabulary learning proceeds from an authentic text in which new items are marked; at any point in the learning process this text together with the associated lexical database can be accessed. Exercises are related to this text. The didactic rationale for this approach is to provide constant confrontation with original reading material. The courseware is 'learner-controlled' in the sense that the learner is not compelled to adhere to a prescribed learning path - although this may be imposed by the teacher if so desired. The paper also briefly reviews an experimental study with the system for students of Dutch as foreign language.
한글 text를 대상으로 각 어절을 분석하여 형태소를 분리해 내고, 그 기본형이 되는 원형을 찾아 관련 정보를 수집하여 한국어 lexical database를 구축하게 된다. 이는 한글 text를 수집, 분석하여 궁극적으로 한글 전자사전을 개발하는 데 있어서 한국어 lexical database의 구축이 필수적이기 때문이다. 이러한 과정에서 한국어는 다른 언어에 비해 조사나 이미 활용이 매우 다양하고 띄어쓰기가 문제되는 언어이므로 각 어절에 대한 형태소의 분석이 요구된다. 본 연구에서는 어절 분석하는 기법을 제시하고 예외적인 상황의 처리및 보다 높은 성능을 갖도록 하는 방법을 논한다.
Based on a corpus of neologisms extracted from Catalan newspapers (published between 1979 and 1983), the author aims to show two fundamental trends in the lexical modernization of Catalan: a) the innovation of socio-political vocabulary reinforces the international character of the lexicon and the models that serve for the formation of new words, while the discourse on the norm gives a clearly purist orientation; b) in the sense of neologisms, there is also a slight tendency towards the elimination of castillianisms, that is, towards a differentiation from Spanish, while the integration of anglicisms and gallicisms is much easier. Despite this, the first trend is predominant, especially in the reduction of internal models of word formation in favor of those that are used, preferably, also in other languages. Finally, reflections are made on the methodological-theoretical value of analyzes for the establishment of a theory of language policy.
Lexical decision, pronunciation, and category verification response times (RTs) to natural object and trait hierarchies were measured. Prime and target words consisted of both superordinate and subordinate object and trait category members. Trait words were categorized as desirable and undesirable (Hampson, et al., 1986). Subjects' RTs to object and undesirable trait words displayed similar patterns. In all experiments, RTs to natural-object subordinate target words were significantly more rapid compared to superordinate words. This same pattern was also true for the undesirable traits, but reached significance in only the lexical decision task. The facilitation effect of the prime reached significance for the natural-objects in the category verification experiment and for the undesirable traits in the lexical decision experiment. This pattern of facilitation by the prime were consistent for natural-objects and undesirable traits across all experiments. In each experiment the opposite pattern of results were found for desirable traits. In the pronunciation and lexical decision experiments RTs to desirable superordinate trait words were significantly more rapid compared to desirable subordinate trait words. In all experiments the facilitation by desirable superordinate trait word primes was significantly greater compared to undesirable superordinate trait words. Post-experiment questionnaires indicated that subjects' judgment of the logical hierarchy entailment asymmetries were highly consistent with the norms. Regression analysis of subjects' judgments of the logical entailment between category stimulus pairs indicated no significant systematic relationship. Implications for research on attribution, category memory, and clinical research on cognitive assessment are discussed.
A key word with regard to a sub-corpus is a word of which the frequency in that sub-corpus is significantly higher than expected under the hypothesis that its use and the variable “part of the corpus” are mutually independent. A study in literary statistics almost invariably includes a chapter devoted to key words. However, a strong attack has been recently launched upon the way stylometry has been modelling texts since the classical works of Herdan, Guiraud or Muller. In fact statistical modelling seems as valid in stylistics as in any other field of the humanities and social sciences. What is questionable is the fact that many studies in literary statistics are more satisfied with the easy identification of monsters, i.e. literary phenomena unexplained by wrong models, than with the laborious research of models fitting the textual data well. A short examination of the mentioned controversy and the quantitative analysis of an example provided by Laclos' novelLes Liaisons dangereuses endeavour to support this argument.
We describe a set of color-graphics routines that permit implementing perceptual learning studies onIBM PCs. Stimulus items may be presented in 320×200 graphics mode, using 4 colors from a 16-color palette. There are 256 levels of stimulus clarification that may be either subject-paced, in which case the subject makes keypresses until the stimulus can be identified, or program-paced. The perceptual learning task may involve either mask clarification or dot clarification. A description of the present level of development of the procedures, and of several demonstration experiments, is presented.
After describing the English course and the particular hypertext system that supports it at Brown University, the essay surveys the materials on Context32, that part of the system devoted to literature courses, and narrates how a student uses the system during a typical session in our electronic laboratory/classroom. Next, it presents evidence of the effects of such information technology on student performance, after which it examines the relation of hypertext to contemporary literary theory, in particular to the ideas of decentering, intertextuality, and anti-hierarchical texts. Finally, it explains the continuing developments of Intermedia.
Studies of children with early-acquired brain damage have noted limitations on language development following such damage and have raised questions regarding the process by which these children acquire language skills. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of perinatally acquired brain damage on early language abilities and on lexical development through the use of standard assessments, language samples, and a miniature linguistic system approach to teach a novel lexicon. Four children, ages 26-41 months, with localized, perinatal brain lesions documented on ultrasound or CT scan were selected for this study and were compared to 4 matched controls. The results show no differences in the pattern of scores and learning in children with right and left brain damage. With the exception of phonological development, subjects scored below controls on all formal language measures; however, the subjects often scored at or above test norms. Brain-injured subjects were similar to controls with respect to the number of novel words that they initially learned on comprehension and production tasks and the number that they consistently comprehended. Brain-injured subjects generally acquired fewer words when the criterion was consistent accurate production. Interestingly, subjects required more exposures to novel lexical items than did controls before reaching a given level of proficiency. Production seemed to be more difficult for all children, but more so for the brain-injured subjects. It appears that the effects of early damage have an impact on many aspects of language development and that these apparent deficits may reflect the child's need for greater exposure to language skills and structures before acquiring them.
Scholars in the humanities often have to account exhaustively for the structure of large masses of data. Tree-diagrams implemented by means of suitable computer programs can be of considerable assistance in achieving a cohesive representation of the data. This paper discusses the respective merits of the two main approaches to tree representation and introduces a new method based on the use of unrooted trees. After a detailed examination of the topological properties of such trees, two algorithms are described. The second part of the paper consists in practical applications of the method of tree representation to a corpus of contemporary English poetry. Several sets of data made up of both lexical and grammatical items (adjectives, modals, auxiliaries and personal pronouns) have been submitted to the method. The findings are assessed in terms of their heuristic value in the light of modern linguistic theory and compared with the results obtained by means of more traditional statistical procedures.
Information theory offers a means for analyzing some constraints on the reading and copying process in Old English. Entropy for strings of various lengths offers a baseline measure of the uncertainty involved in transmission of Old English texts, while avoiding the pitfalls of applying models of modern reading to early medieval practice. Analysis of lengthy prose and verse texts in Old English revealed uniformly high values for entropy at all string lengths. High entropies may be the result of the language's irregular orthography, poetic koiné, and several dialects and imply that the language may have been easy to write but difficult to read. The low redundancy of the language which its high entropy values indicate suggests that the reader of Old English played an enhanced role in “decoding” a text and may provide an explanation for the high variability in the transmission of Old English verse.
The present paper is a critique of quantitative studies of literature. It is argued that such studies are involved in an act of reification, in which, moreover, fundamental ingredients of the texts, e.g. their (highly important) range of figurative meanings, are eliminated from the analysis. Instead a concentration on lower levels of linguistic organization, such as grammar and lexis, may be observed, in spite of the fact that these are often the least relevant aspects of the text. In doing so, quantitative studies of literature significantly reduce not only the cultural value of texts, but also the generalizability of its own findings. What is needed, therefore, is an awareness and readiness to relate to matters of textuality as an organizing principle underlying the cultural functioning of literary works of art.
The study of the history of new words in theNewOED described in this paper was undertaken in 1986-87, and is based on the material then available. Since then, theNewOED has been finished, and PAT, the inquiry system developed at the University of Waterloo for the investigation of theNewOED data base, has been much altered and improved. Nevertheless, this report should prove useful in indicating the potentiality for analyzing the computerizedNewOED and some of the problems. This project is a study of the ways in which new words are created in English at various periods of time. A chronological dictionary 's created listing words introduced into the language over 50 year increments. These words are then classified by the processes used in forming them to show, in proportional terms, if certain processes are more common at some times than at others.
The possible benefits of computing in humanities research are often wasted because of the psychological barriers that computers evoke in non-specialists. This paper examines the underlying causes and suggests some ways of alleviating the problem. One approach in particular, i.e. ease through familiarity, is discussed in more detail. It is illustrated by means of a description of a database system that uses this approach: the Linguistic DataBase, which contains syntactic analysis trees of natural language data.
Research on changes in Shaw's rhetoric inMrs. Warren's Profession, Major Barbara, andHeartbreak House led me to a heuristic for gaining literary critical control over computer output. This essay describes the eleven-step process: stepping away from the data, stating first premises, developing a working hypothesis, classifying computer-sorted data, marking implicit literary sub-structures, collecting sub-structural data into tables, applying earlier statistical observations, choosing parts for detailed analysis, designing a visual method for representing the analysis, presenting segment by segment analysis of the selected data, and making larger descriptive generalizations. While describing this heuristic, the essay also reports on the Shaw research.
This article describes some approaches to imitation analysis and the use of ready-made software for this task. Devising computer-assisted techniques for exploring the conscious literary imitation of style is an application of particular relevance to contemporary Hispanic narrative and one that can be handled with a microcomputer and readily accessible software. The article describes some approaches to imitation analysis and the use of ready-made software to assess the effectiveness of stylistic imitation of eighteenth-century historical chronicle in La renuncia del héroe Baltasar (The Renunciation of the Hero Baltasar), by the Puerto Rican novelist Rodríguez Juliá. Even when employing familiar procedures of text analysis with computer, comparing a fictional text with a multiple and diverse corpus of authentic historical documents requires somewhat unique assumptions and hypotheses, since neither authorship, influence, or authenticity are in question.
This paper suggests ways in which the pattern-matching capability of the computer can be used to further our understanding of stylized ballad language. The study is based upon a computer-aided analysis of the entire 595,000- word corpus of Francis James Child'sThe English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–1892), a collection of 305 textual traditions, most of which are represented by a variety of texts. The paper focuses on the “Mary Hamilton” tradition as a means of discussing the function of phatic language in the ballad genre and the significance of textual variation.
The Société de 1789 was a political club founded in early 1790 to propagate the ideals of the Revolution and the Enlightenment. A systematic analysis of the language found in the public discourse of the Société using simple quantitative techniques suggests important distinctions in comparison to the language found in a baseline sample, a selection of the General Cahiers de doléances of 1789. It is further argued that these differences represent an Enlightened reforming tradition that carried into the French Revolution.
The purpose of this paper is to show the utility of the application of a non-ultrametric tree-model to textual data. The first part introduces a basic topological property of the tree and the notion of neighbourhood, which reflects the structure of the tree. The second part emphasizes through illustration examples the adequacy of this model for representing different varieties of textual data.
Based on the ARTFL version of theProfession and excerpts fromEmile, high frequency function and content words, as defined by Brunet, are analyzed via Pearson chi square tests. Next, four measures of narrative voice from the same populations are compared using Markovian chains and further chi square tests. In a third analysis the two orders of evidence are juxtaposed. The lexical and narratological preferences of theVicaire and theGouverneur, while not resolving the problematic of chronological composition (Burgelin, 1969), highlight the distinctiveness of each character.
An interface circuit to connect a microphone to an Apple Macintosh computer is described. The Apple Macintosh mouse port is used as the input port, and the microphone activation simulates a mouse press.
Using bar code technology to automate data collection provides a rapid and reliable alternative to paper-and-pencil tracking or keyboard entry into pocket or laptop computer. An array of bar code symbols is printed on a data menu, with a unique symbol corresponding to each possible observation. Bar code symbols are scanned using hand-held readers, which record the event, log the observation time, and store data for transfer to a personal computer. Advantages of the bar code monitoring system include: (1) ease of use by staff with minimal technical training, (2) reduced data entry errors and increased entry speed, (3) reliable portable operation, and (4) low-cost hardware. While the bar code system described here is used for behavioral monitoring in a residential treatment setting for the developmentally disabled, with minimal modification this system can be adapted for use in a wide variety of research and clinical applications.
This paper discusses hardware choices, software developments, implementation issues, and preliminary results from an ongoing long-term remedial reading study. Reading-disabled children read books on microcomputers linked to speech synthesizers, obtaining speech feedback on difficult words at whole-word, syllable, or subsyllable levels of segmentation. Word-recognition ability and attitude about reading improved for children using the system. In addition, segmented feedback especially benefited phonological word-decoding skills for most of the children.
In this paper, we discuss the potential of HyperCard for research and instruction in psychology. First we give a general overview of the HyperCard program; after that, we present two HyperCard stacks as sample solutions for two specific research applications. Surveyor, a self-contained survey tool, is a HyperCard-based vehicle for developing, administering, and processing tests and surveys. Queston demonstrates how HyperCard can be used as a data-management and data-analysis tool during the stages of questionnaire development. Both stacks illustrate how flexible HyperCard is and how easy it is to use it to manage, analyze, and process data, to transfer data to other programs, and to print reports. HyperCard, unlike traditional applications, gives the user a great degree of control over the way information is stored, mainipulated, and presented. Although both stacks are custom-made for specific purposes, the concepts underlying the design can be generally applied and adapted for other purposes.
A manually operated preferential looking grating acuity test was modified to include a micro-computer for controlling both stimulus presentation and data acquisition, storage, and analysis. The computerized test requires only one observer-operator and minimizes several testing biases and errors of the manual test. A technique was developed to keep the observer-operator masked during the generation of a transformed staircase. The monocular test time of about 8 min, and the success rate—81% for 224 children aged 2–39 months—compare favorably with our experience with the manual two-operator test. For 39 pairs of age-matched children without visual pathology, grating acuities were 0.6 octaves better with the computerized test. The computerized version was used to measure acuity in 120 children who had, according to clinical examination, poorer vision in one eye than in the other. The suspect eyes showed an average of 0.8 octaves poorer grating acuity. The improvements of computerization were realized without loss of the advantages of the manual test.
emphasize a particular theoretical perspective on language/gender studies production: patterns of linguistic norms meaning: expressing content and announcing attitudes (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors of interactive fiction are beginning to demonstrate a concern for the literariness of their product. Literariness, as defined by Shklovskij and the Russian Formalists, is the quality of “making strange” that which is linguistically familiar, a quality Shklovskij termed ostranenie. By applying the principle of ostranenie, as well as other well-known literary principles, to the most serious interactive fictions, we can determine if this new genre exhibits the features of literariness. A study of Mindwheel, Brimstone, Breakers, A Mind Forever Voyaging, Portal, and Trinity suggest that the literariness of interactive fiction comes out of its concern both for “making strange” what is familiar and for “making familiar” what is strange.
Currently most literary critics reject the use of science and technology to gain information about texts, while most computer text-analysts have become absorbed in science and technology and forgotten they were seeking information about literature. Whether these two trends will continue into the 1990's remains to be seen; that they explain a good deal about the world we work in now can, I think, be demonstrated. This essay looks at the questions of what literary computing could offer to literary critics, why computer users get lost in scientific jargon, what happens when text becomes input and, most importantly, what happens when text becomes output; it closes with a discussion of why the synthesis will be so difficult.
In this paper, I will outline a theory of gradation1 that builds upon quite a number of previous analyses, preserving as far as possible the concepts that have already been clarified, but modifying the structure of earlier proposals in crucial respects. The reason for adding a new theory to the ones already existing is twofold: (a) The new theory accounts for a number of relevant facts that have systematically been ignored by earlier analyses. (b) It relates these facts to those already analysed in a way which does not merely give a descriptive account, but rather an explanation in terms of a few underlying conditions from which the whole range of facts follow in a natural way. A detailed discussion of the various analyses proposed so far would by far exceed the limits set for the present paper.2 1 will instead simply list, for the sake of preliminary orientation, the main points that the present theory shares with some or all of its predecessors, and those in which it differs from them. In accordance with other approaches, I will make the following assumptions: (i) The Positive of relative adjectives must be analysed in close connection with the Comparative, the Equative, and a number of related constructions. More specifically, the constructions in question are all based on a single lexical representation of the adjectives involved. (ii) The Positive of a relative adjective is interpreted with respect to a contextually determined class of comparison C. Within C, a standard, average, or norm N.c A. is defined with respect to the property A specified by the adjective in question, so that, e.g., John is tall is interpreted roughly as ‘John is taller than /V M ’. In the present paper, 1 will not be concerned with the question how Cand Ntr.. are determined, but simply assume that N is available. (I will usually drop the index [C, A] of N.) (iii) Relative adjectives assign to an individual x a degree dA where d might be conceived as a class of individuals that are equivalent with respect to A. (This notion will be somewhat modified below.) Differing from all other approaches, I make the following assumptions: (iv) The lexical representation of a relational adjective is semantically a kind of three-place predicate that relates an individual x, a standard of comparison v, and a difference c. With respect to their semantic type, both v and c are degrees, and the degree assigned to x is composed of the values of v and c? One of the possible values of v is N. (v) Comparative and Equative constructions are related to each other in roughly the following way: the complement clause of the Comparative specifies the value of v, while that of the Equative specifies the value of c.4 (vi) Relative adjectives belong to (at least) two classes, which I will call dimensional adjectives (tall, long, heavy etc.), and evaluative adjectives (clever, nice, good etc.). The degrees specified by D-adjectives are extents, the degrees specified by E-adjectives are grades.5 (vii) There is a small number of conditions on semantic representations that determine, among others, the value the standard of comparison v can assume in specified configurations. To conclude this preliminary outline, I should emphasize that more important than the list of individual points relating the present theory to or distinguishing it from other proposals is the general structure of the theory, which is different from its predecessors. This will become clear as we proceed.
We present normative data from a Hebrew language version of the Stroop color-word test. In this sample of college-educated Israeli young adults, 18 women and 28 men with a mean age of 28.4 yr. completed a Hebrew language Stroop test. When compared with 1978 English language norms of Golden, Hebrew speakers were slower on color-word reading and color naming, similar on naming the color of incongruently colored names of colors, and showed less interference. Slowed color-word reading and color-naming may reflect the two-syllable length of the Hebrew names for one-syllable length English language colors; reduced interference may reflect the exclusion of vowels in much Hebrew printing and subjects' ability to provide competing, nonconflicting words while naming the color of words in which the hue and the lexical content do not match.
The conversion of all classical literature for the period of Homer in the 8th century B.C. through the 6th century A.D. into machine-readable format — designated the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae project — was the impetus behind the use of classical literature in a variety of electronic research environments. Initially targeted for mainframe storage and retrieval, the data is now also being published and distributed on CD-ROM for use with microcomputers. Two such projects, the TLG Project at the University of California-Trvine and the Isocrates Project at Brown University's IRIS Center are described as well as other CD-ROM projects for the storage and dissemination of literature in the humanities and classical research. Various CD-ROM systems are also described, including the Ibycus Scholarly Computer.
This study focuses on the imagery of youth and old age in the plays of Euripides, especially the Suppliant Women, considering frequently used words in each play according to a formula developed by Guiraud. The study identifies a motif, the rejuvenation theme, an elaborate interaction between young and old, in the Suppliant Women and in: Alcestis, Heraclidae, Andromache, Hecabe, and Heracles. The difference between the use of neos (young, new) in the Suppliant Women and in the other plays is statistically significant. This word helps Euripides contrast two different kinds of youth: the fearful, rash, and animalistic (Theban); and that which has been properly schooled and led (Athenian). The greatest ground in the Suppliant Women for praising Athens is in her treatment of the young as a politically valuable force.
Solid-state anomaloscopes whose stimuli are derived from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are simpler and less expensive than conventional anomaloscopes. We have assessed the test-retest reliability and the validity of one solid-state anomaloscope and have obtained normative data for it. Reliability and validity were assessed by classifying 36 color-defective observers into one of five categories defined by degree of defect. When all color defectives were considered, both the validity and reliability of the solid-state anomaloscope were found to be high. The primary stimuli of the solid-state anomaloscope are less well separated in chromaticity space than are those of conventional anomaloscopes, but there is no evidence that this results in the incorrect classification of anomalous trichromats as dichromats. The solid-state anomaloscope appears to be an acceptable alternative to standard anomaloscopes for both research and screening applications.
EnglishIn this paper, Marie-Christine Hazael-Massieux examines the problems raised first by the isolation, then the normalisation and lexical planning of a language which is used mainly in oral situations, and is in permanent contact with another language. This is the case of the French Creole of the West-Indies, in a context characterised by frequent code-switching with, and borrowing from French. This makes it difficult to determine to which language belongs any lexical item, specially as Creole constantly borrows isolated terms and, this is 'more important, derivational processes. It is tempting for some authors or groups working in the field of the promotion of Creole as a written language, to transfer to the development of Creole, lexical mechanisms usually used to expand the lexicon of French. The limits of the action of language planning must imperatively be set in such a situation, in which a norm is very concretely evolved through the preparation of dictionaries and grammars. francaisDans cet article, M.-C. Hazael-Massieux souligne les problemes poses par la definition, la normalisation et l'amenagement du lexique d'une langue essentiellement orale et utilisee en situation de contact avec une autre langue. Effectivement le creole des Petites Antilles fonctionne dans la communication en alternance avec le francais, et il n'est pas toujours aise de delimiter les lexiques de ces deux langues, d'autant plus que le creole emprunte actuellement au francais, aussi bien certains mots que des procedes de derivation: la tentation est grande pour certains auteurs creoles ou certains groupes qui oeuvrent pour l'amenagement d'un creole ecrit de proposer la mise en oeuvre de procedes, largement utilises en francais, pour developper le lexique. Alors que se pose la question de la fixation d'une norme, notamment du fait de la redaction de dictionnaires ou de grammaires du creole, il est indispensable de reflechir aux limites que doit se fixer tout amenagement linguistique.
The Indus valley civilization, also known as the Harappan civilization flourished from 2600 B.C. to 1750 B.C. in the Indian subcontinent. The writings of that civilization are in a pictorial type of script which has not been deciphered so far.
The Dictionary of Old English computing systems have provided access since the 1970s to a database of approximately three million running words. These systems, designed for a variety of machines and written in a variety of languages, have until recently been planned with computing center billing algorithms in mind. With personal workstations emphasis has shifted to building more elegant user interfaces and to providing the entire DOE database to editors around the world. While the shift from sequential files to random access files and the provision of extensive development tools have changed some of the design process, error checking and protection of the database against accidental intrusion have remained as central issues.