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18265 papers
In Data-Oriented Parsing (DOP), an annotated language corpus is used as a stochastic grammar. The most probable analysis of a new input sentence is constructed by combining sub-analyses from the corpus in the most probable way. This approach has been succesfully used for syntactic analysis, using corpora with syntactic annotations such as the Penn Treebank. If a corpus with semantically annotated sentences is used, the same approach can also generate the most probable semantic interpretation of an input sentence. The present paper explains this semantic interpretation method, and summarizes the results of a preliminary experiment. Semantic annotations were added to the syntactic annotations of most of the sentences of the ATIS corpus. A data-oriented semantic interpretation algorithm was succesfully tested on this semantically enriched corpus.
In this paper, we want to describe a tagger/lemmatiser for Dutch medical vocabulary, which consists of a full-form dictionary and a morphological recogniser for unknown vocabulary coupled to an expert system-like disambiguation module. Attention is also paid to the main datastructures: a lexical database and feature bundles implemented as directed acyclic graphs. some evaluation results are presented as well. The tagger/lemmatiser currently functions as a lexical front-end for a syntactic parser. For pure tagging/lemmatising purposes, a reduced tagset (not suited for sentence analysis) can be used as well.
The purpose of the present study was to examine empirically the influence of past memories on current perceptions of relationship functioning. Michael White's therapeutic metaphor, which posits that individuals have the ability to overcome the constraining effects of socially-constructed meanings or narratives that negatively impinge on their lives, served as the primary conceptual lens. Research from the fields of cognitive psychology and neuro-lingusitic programming also provided crucial conceptual structure. In the current experimental study, three groups of university students participated in a memory recall exercise that attempted to access multi-sensory information about positive, negative or unspecified memories of experiences with a romantic significant other. Participants completed a dyadic measure that measured the level of perceived conflict with the significant other, and a mood scale based on bi-polar mood states. Mood was measured before and after the positive, negative, and unspecified treatment conditions. It was predicted that positive memory recall would result in lower scores of perceived conflict than the other two conditions; that memory type would affect intensity of affect; and that post-treatment mood would relate to the emotion associated with the type of memories recalled. The results indicated that type of memory recalled (positive, negative, unspecified) had a temporary effect on intensity of affect elicited, but did not affect ratings of perceived conflict. Type of memory recalled was not significantly related to post-treatment mood. Pre-treatment mood was the best predictor of post-treatment mood. The results are discussed in terms of future implications for the use of language to facilitate memory recall and affect mood state.
Three groups of informants--two in California, one in Atlanta--recalled their experiences of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake shortly after the event and again 11/2 years later. The Californians' recalls of their own earthquake experiences were virtually perfect. Even their recalls of hearing the news of an earthquake-related event were very good: much higher than Atlantan recalls of hearing about the quake itself. Atlantans who had relatives in the affected area remembered significantly more than those who did not. These data show that personal involvement in the quake led to greatly improved recall, but do not show why. Many Californian informants reported low levels of stress/arousal during the event; arousal ratings were not significantly correlated with recall. The authors suggest that repeated narrative rehearsals may have played an important role.
A new instrument was designed to provide a practical clinical measure for assessing children's pain intensity and pain affect. The pocket size measure includes a Coloured Analogue Scale (CAS) to assess intensity and a facial affective scale to assess the aversive component of pain. Both scales have numerical ratings on the back, so that the person administering it can quickly note the numbers that represent a child's pain. This study was conducted to determine the validity of the new instrument by evaluating the psychophysical properties of the intensity scale and by evaluating the discriminant validity of the intensity and affective scales. Since visual analogue scales (VAS) are valid and reliable measures for assessing children's pain, children's ability to use the new analog scale was compared with their performance on a VAS. Children's ability to rate pain affect using an affective scale, in which the 9 faces on a Facial Affective Scale (FAS) are presented in an ordered sequence from least to most distressed, was compared to their performance on the original FAS, in which the same faces were presented in a random order. Using a parallel groups design, 104 children (5-16 years; 60 female, 44 male; 51 healthy and 53 with recurrent headaches) were randomized into two groups: CAS or VAS. Children used the assigned scale to complete a calibration task, in which they rated the sizes of 7 circles varying in area (491, 804, 1385, 2923, 3848, 5675 and 7854 mm2). The psychophysical function relating perceived circle size to actual physical size was determined for the CAS and VAS. Children's CAS and VAS responses on the calibration task yielded similar mathematical relationships: psi cas = 0.035I0.87, psi vas = 0.027I0.89, where psi = perceived magnitude and I = stimulus intensity. The R2 values were 0.921 and 0.922 for the CAS and VAS groups, respectively. Analyses of covariance revealed no significant differences in the characteristics of these relationships, i.e., R2, slope, or y intercept, by scale type. Children used the same scale to complete the Children's Pain Inventory (CPI), in which they rated the intensity and affect of 16 painful events (varying in nature and extent of tissue damage). Children's CAS and VAS responses on the CPI were similar. Analyses of covariance indicated that there were no differences in either intensity or affective ratings by scale type. However, the mean number of painful events experienced by children increased significantly with age (P = 0.0001). Intensity ratings decreased significantly with age (P = 0.002), but affective ratings did not vary with age. The new instrument has equivalent psychometric properties to a 165 mm VAS. However, the CAS was rated as easier to administer and score than the VAS, so it may be more practical for routine clinical use. Since the CAS has fulfilled the first two criteria for a pain measure (psychophysical properties and discriminant validity), it is ethical to proceed with the formal definitive test for construct validity, in which children from various clinical populations use the CAS scale to assess their own pain.
For many people, there is a discrepancy between perceived and desired physical appearance. Attempts have been made to quantify this discrepancy as a measure of body-image disturbance: however, the use of measurement scales which are not population-specific may bias the assessment. To investigate whether ratings of body-images were affected by the scale employed, 57 male and 40 female adolescents were tested using both adult and adolescent body-figure silhouette scales. Significant between-scale differences were found, with adolescents displaying consistently lower body-image ratings when viewing adult as opposed to adolescent scales. In addition, between-sex differences in discrepancy scores and correlations between discrepancy scores and another measure of body satisfaction were significantly influenced by the scale employed. The results confirm the need for population-specific measurement scales and the implementation of standardised assessment procedures.
This work attempted to define the impact of panel experience on olfactory memory performance by comparing scores in an odor recognition task obtained from a highly trained descriptive panel (17 subjects) and a naive one (33 subjects with no experience in sensory analysis). During the inspection phase, 16 odorants were presented monadically to subjects for familiarity rating and a written description. The recognition session was planned 7 days later with 32 odorants (including the 16 of the target set). Subjects also described the odor of the stimuli. The memory performance of each panel was estimated by the mean value of individual d' (index of detectability). Training of the descriptive panel did not enhance the olfactory memory ability, which strengthened the well-established idea that odor memory is closely linked to personal experience of the subject with the stimuli. However, odor recognition performances were improved by a precise and consistent answer at the encoding task: for both groups, subjects performed better when stimuli were precisely labeled and consistently used. Trained subjects were more accurate when describing than naive ones, whatever the degree of familiarity. Panel experience allowed trained subjects to verbalize their perception especially accurately when stimuli were familiar.
A treebank is a body of natural language text which has been grammatically annotated by hand, in terms of some previously-established scheme of grammatical analysis. Treebanks have been used within the field of natural language processing as a source of training data for statistical part og speech taggers (Black et al., 1992; Brill, 1994; Merialdo, 1994; Weischedel et al., 1993) and for statistical parsers (Black et al., 1993; Brill, 1993; aelinek et al., 1994; Magerman, 1995; Magerman and Marcus, 1991). In this article, we present the AT'R/Lancaster 7'reebauk of American English, a new resource tbr natural-language-, processing research, which has been prepared by Lancaster University (UK)'s Unit for Computer Research on the English Language, according to specifications provided by ATR (Japan)'s Statistical Parsing Group. First we provide a static description, with (a) a discussion of the mode of selection and initial processing of text for inclusion in the treebank, and (b) an explanation of the scheme of grammatical annotation we then apply to the text. Sec.ond, we supply a process description of the treebank, in which we detail the physical and computational mechanisms by which we have created it. Finally, we lay out plans for the further development of this new treebank. All of the features of the ATR/Lancaster Treebank that are described below represent a radical departure from extant large-scale (Eyes and Leech, 1993; Garside and McEnery, 1993; Marcus et al., 1993) treebanks. We have chosen in this article to present our treebank in some detail, rather than to compare and contrast it with other treebanks. But the major differences between this and earlier treebanks can easily be grasped via a corn-
As we move into the next millennium, we are already seeing economic and marketing shifts—the move toward supply-dominated economies and the loosening of constraints on commerce across geopolitical boundaries—that are gaining momentum worldwide. These shifts will demand that marketers create and leverage the power of the brand to realize anything more than commodity margins. Failing to do so will force marketers to seek lowest-cost provider status, to compete against other goods or services primarily on price, and to realize no more than commodity margins.Accordingly, this paper provides recommendations for leveraging brands based on Young & Rubicam’s BrandAsset® Valuator project, the largest worldwide survey of consumer brand perceptions to date.Additionally, implications from this project are discussed for communications research, market studies, strategic planning, and global branding. Specifically, communications research should incorporate leading indicators (i.e., brand differentiation and relevance) rather than such traditional lagging indicators as knowledge levels and affective ratings. Also, market studies should include brands over and above direct category competitors to uncover new brand-building opportunities. Ideally, strategic planning efforts should take the brand’s current health and developmental level into account. Finally, globalization is desirable to the extent that a brand’s differentiation can be made relevant in each of the markets of interest.
Horizontal redundancy is inherent to lexica consisting of descriptions of fully formed objects. This causes an unwelcome expansion of the lexical database and increases parsing time. To climinate it, direct relations between descriptions of fully formed objects are often defined. These are additional to the (Typed Multiple) Inheritance Network which already structures the lexicon. Many implementations of horizontal relations, however, fail to generate lexical entries on a needs-driven basis, so eliminate neither the problem of lexicon expansion nor that of inefficient parsing. Alternatively, we propose that lexical entries are descriptions of objects open to contextual specification of their properties on the basis of constraints defined within the type system. This guarantees that only those grammatical lexical entries are infered that are needed for efficient parsing. The proposal is extremely modest, making use of only basic inference power and expressivity.
Depuis quelques années l’annotation automatique de corpus est devenue une activité à part entière en informatique linguistique. Nous faisons le point sur un gros corpus anglais complètement annoté pour la syntaxe, le Penn Treebank, ainsi que sur deux outils d’étiquetage morphosyntaxique automatique disponibles pour le français: le taggeur de Xerox et le taggeur de l’INaLF.
Since treebanks have become available to researchers a wide variety of techniques has been used to make broad coverage parsing systems. This makes quantitative evaluation very important, but the current evaluation methods have a number of drawbacks such as arbitrary choices in the treebank and the difficulty in measuring statistical significance. We suggest a more detailed method for testing a parsing system using constituent boundaries, with a number of measures that give more information than current measures, and evaluate the quality of the test. We also show that statistical significance cannot be calculated in a straightforward way, and suggest a calculation method for the case of Bracket Recall.
The purpose of this article is to analyse those contexts in which the indicative simple and compound perfect (sang I have sung) move away from their systematic values and assume different time value in verb tenses which belong to the indicative as well as the subjunctive. This work is based on the materials for the study of the linguistic norm of learned people, which were gathered according to the outlines established in the Proyecto de estudio coordinado de la norma linguistica culta del espanol hablado en las principales ciudades del mundo hispanico (the Project of coordinated study of the linguistic norm used by the learned). [2] GRACIA PINERO PINERO 312
Yvonne Touchard - Corrections of the Annales du Brevet: Ready-made thinking, or reflexions on how to argue a point in school. The study analyzes texts submitted by various publishers of the Annales du Brevet as "correct versions" of argumentative texts. Written by adults (teachers), these texts imitate the way pupils are supposed to write. The enunciative, discursive, syntaxic and lexical characteristics are studied. From the point of view of enunciation, they are polyphonic, since the writer adds his/her own adult voice to that of the pupil he is supposed to be imitating. They apply the rules usually taught in middle schools to argue a point, showing an expertise that makes these texts into "models", thus demonstrating what the ideal discursive norms are taken to be. The points chosen for the argument also inform us as to the values propounded by the school system.
We describe the techniques that we devised to enable authors who had never met physically to collaborate on a large-scale writing project. The goal was to use the Internet to simulate the close interactions that are possible in a traditional conference to foster cross-fertilization of ideas and to increase the coherence of the book we were writing. We discuss areas that should concern those who consider using the Internet for collaborative work.
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ZubrickJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research50:6 (1562-1592)1 Dec 2007Late Language Emergence at 24 Months: An Epidemiological Study of Prevalence, Predictors, and CovariatesStephen R. Zubrick, Catherine L. Taylor, Mabel L. Rice and David W. SlegersContemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders34:Fall (118-133)1 Oct 2007Issues in Research on Children With Early Language DelayIrina Tsybina and Alice Eriks-BrophyJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research49:5 (984-1000)1 Oct 2006Individual Differences in the Onset of Tense Marking: A Growth-Curve AnalysisPamela A. Hadley and Janet K. HoltJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research49:5 (955-969)1 Oct 2006The Relationship Between Phonological Memory, Receptive Vocabulary, and Fast Mapping in Young Children With Specific Language ImpairmentShelley GrayJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research48:6 (1452-1467)1 Dec 2005Word Learning by Preschoolers With Specific Language ImpairmentShelley GrayAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology14:2 (156-163)1 May 2005Concurrent Validity of the Language Development Survey: Associations With the MacArthur—Bates Communicative Development InventoriesLeslie Rescorla, Nan Bernstein Ratner, Peter Jusczyk and Anne Marie JusczykJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research48:2 (459-472)1 Apr 2005Age 13 Language and Reading Outcomes in Late-Talking ToddlersLeslie RescorlaAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology14:1 (40-51)1 Feb 2005Utility of the MacArthur—Bates Communicative Development Inventory in Identifying Language Abilities of Late-Talking and Typically Developing ToddlersJohn Heilmann, Susan Ellis Weismer, Julia Evans and Christine HollarLanguage, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools36:1 (5-16)1 Jan 2005Semantic Deficits in Children With Language ImpairmentsTim Brackenbury and Clifton PyeAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology13:4 (291-303)1 Nov 2004Relations Among Maternal, Child, and Demographic Factors and the Persistence of Preschool Language ImpairmentKaren M. LaParo, Laura Justice, Lori E. Skibbe and Robert C. PiantaJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research46:6 (1283-1296)1 Dec 2003The Stability of Primary Language DisorderJ. Bruce Tomblin, Xuyang Zhang, Paula Buckwalter and Marlea O'BrienJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research46:3 (544-560)1 Jun 2003Outcomes of Early Language DelayPhilip S. Dale, Thomas S. Price, Dorothy V. M. Bishop and Robert PlominAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology12:2 (131-143)1 May 2003Qualitative Research and Speech-Language PathologyJack S. Damico and Nina N. Simmons-MackieLanguage, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools34:2 (138-153)1 Apr 2003A Prospective Longitudinal Study of Phonological Development in Late TalkersA. Lynn Williams and Mary ElbertAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology12:1 (28-39)1 Feb 2003Phonological Profiles of 2-Year-Olds With Delayed Language DevelopmentCecyle Perry Carson, Thomas Klee, David K. Carson and Linda K. HimeJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research45:6 (1219-1231)1 Dec 2002Nominal Versus Verbal Morpheme Use in Late Talkers at Ages 3 and 4Leslie Rescorla and Julie RobertsAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology11:4 (417-433)1 Nov 2002Typical and Atypical Language Development in Infants and Toddlers Adopted From Eastern EuropeSharon Glennen and M. Gay MastersAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology11:4 (381-394)1 Nov 2002Expressive Vocabulary of German-English Bilingual ToddlersDörte A. Junker and Ida J. StockmanJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research45:2 (360-371)1 Apr 2002Language and Reading Outcomes to Age 9 in Late-Talking ToddlersLeslie RescorlaAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology10:4 (358-369)1 Nov 2001Children With a History of Expressive Vocabulary DelayLuigi Girolametto, Megan Wiigs, Ron Smyth, Elaine Weitzman and Patsy Steig PearceJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research44:4 (873-885)1 Aug 2001Language Development and Symbolic Play in Children With and Without Familial Risk for DyslexiaPaula Lyytinen, Anna-Maija Poikkeus, Marja-Leena Laakso, Kenneth Eklund and Heikki LyytinenJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research42:5 (1234-1248)1 Oct 1999Effects of Treatment on Linguistic and Social Skills in Toddlers With Delayed Language DevelopmentShari Brand Robertson and Susan Ellis WeismerAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology8:3 (273-286)1 Aug 1999Sentence Recast Use by Parents of Children With Typical Language and Children With Specific Language ImpairmentMarc E. Fey, Tracy E. Krulik, Diane Frome Loeb and Kerry Proctor-WilliamsAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology8:3 (249-260)1 Aug 1999A Comparison of Early Literacy Skills in Children With Specific Language Impairment and Their Typically Developing PeersDonna M. Boudreau and Natalie L. HedbergJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research42:2 (482-496)1 Apr 1999Validity of a Parent Report Measure of Vocabulary and Syntax for Preschool Children With Language ImpairmentDonna J. Thal, Laureen O'Hanlon, Mary Clemmons and LaShon FralinAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology8:1 (11-22)1 Feb 1999Potential Advantages of Introducing Specific Language Impairment to FamiliesC. Melanie Schuele and Pamela A. HadleyJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research41:6 (1412-1431)1 Dec 1998Tense Over TimeMabel L. Rice, Kenneth Wexler and Scott HershbergerJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research41:6 (1384-1397)1 Dec 1998Early Verb-Related Vulnerability Among Children With Specific Language ImpairmentPamela A. HadleyAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology7:4 (46-56)1 Nov 1998Expressive Vocabulary Development and Word Combinations of Spanish-English Bilingual ToddlersJanet L. PattersonJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research41:3 (627-641)1 Jun 1998Concurrent and Predictive Validity of an Early Language Screening ProgramThomas Klee, David K. Carson, William J. Gavin, Lisa Hall, Amy Kent and Shaily ReeceLanguage, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools29:2 (76-84)1 Apr 1998A Clinical Synthesis of the "Late Talker" LiteratureDonna J. KellyAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology7:1 (23-32)1 Feb 1998Recommending Intervention for Toddlers With Specific Language Learning DifficultiesLesley B. Olswang, Barbara Rodriguez and Geralyn TimlerJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research40:5 (990-1001)1 Oct 1997Look Who's TalkingRomy V. Spitz, Paula Tallal, Judy Flax and April A. BenasichJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research40:5 (1037-1047)1 Oct 1997Reading and Metaphonological Outcomes in Late TalkersRhea Paul, Candace Murray, Kathleen Clancy and David AndrewsPerspectives on Neurophysiology and Neurogenic Speech and Language Disorders7:1 (18-25)1 May 1997Early Language Acquisition and InterventionDiane Frome LoebAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology6:2 (40-49)1 May 1997Understanding Language DelayRhea PaulAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology6:2 (34-39)1 May 1997When Is "Watch and See" Warranted? A Response to Paul's 1996 Article, "Clinical Implications of the Natural History of Slow Expressive Language Development"Anne van Kleeck, Ronald B. Gillam and Barbara DavisAmerican Journal of Speech-Language Pathology6:2 May 1997Early Intervention With Early Childhood F. and Journal of Speech-Language Pathology6:2 May the E. of Speech, Language, and Hearing Dec Development in Late TalkersRhea Paul, Lisa Taylor and of Speech, Language, and Hearing Dec for Toddlers With Expressive Vocabulary Girolametto, Patsy Steig and Elaine Journal of Speech-Language Nov or to Speech, and Hearing Services in of Speech, Language, and Literacy and C. Melanie Schuele to Dec 13, Dec in May 1996 of of language disorders in & 1996 American
This paper describes a heuristic algorithm capable of automatically assigning a label to each of the senses in a machine readable dictionary (MRD) for the purpose of acquiring a computational -semantic lexicon for treatment of lexical ambiguity. Including these labels in the MRD-based lexical database offers several positive effects. The labels can be used as a coarser sense division so unnecessarily fine sense distinction can be avoided in word sense disambiguation (WSD).The algorithm is based primarily on simple word matching between an MRD definition sentence and word lists of an LLOCE topic. We also describe an implementation of the algorithm for labeling definition sentences in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE). For this purpose the topics and sets of related words in Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (LLOCE) are used in this work. Quantitative results for a 12-word test set are reported. Our discussion entails how the availability of these labels provides the means for treating such problems as: acquisition of a lexicon capable of providing broad coverage, systematic word sense shifts, lexical underspecification, and acquisition of zero-derivativeso 1.
Starting from the accepted premise that Marlowe influenced the young Shakespeare, a selection of strongly contextual words characteristic of Tamburlaine are shown to be reflected in Shakespeare's early history plays. Principal components analysis confirms this. A very similar configuration, however, results when the selected Marlowe-preferred words are non-contextual common words. This feature can not be explained by influence in its conventional sense, particularly when the Shakespeare plays closest to Marlowe are those that share with Marlowe a dearth of selected Shakespeare-preferred common words.
The Shakespeare Clinic has developed 51 computer tests of Shakespeare play authorship and 14 of poem authorship, and applied them to 37 claimed “true Shakespeares,” to 27 plays of the Shakespeare Apocrypha, and to several poems of unknown or disputed authorship. No claimant, and none of the apocryphal plays or poems, matched Shakespeare. Two plays and one poem from the Shakespeare Canon,Titus Andronicus, Henry VI, Part 3, and “A Lover's Complaint,” do not match the others.
The extraordinary impact of Thomas Paine's Common Sense has often been attributed to its style — to the simplicity and forcefulness with which Paine expressed ideas that many others before him had expressed. Comparative analysis of Common Sense and other pre-Revolutionary pamphlets suggests that Common Sense was indeed stylistically unique; no other pamphleteer came close to matching Paine's combination of simplicity and forcefulness.
Movement activity of a normal baboon and of a baboon with induced Parkinsonism by unilateral administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) was recorded by the Walter Reed Activity Monitor (or actigraph). Mean activity in the lesioned baboon was 41% less than that of the nonlesioned baboon measured over a 14-day period. In addition, the daily maximum activity value was significantly less in the MPTP-treated baboon. Moreover, resting and sleeping periods were 30% greater in the lesioned animal. The akinesia and resting and sleeping periods were displayed by the lesioned baboon throughout the day, whereas the control baboon showed them only at night. The data representing summarized movement activity are in accordance with observations of bradykinesia, hypokinesia, and akinesia of the MPTP-treated baboon. The actigraph was well tolerated by the animal because its small size and weight made it largely unobtrusive. We suggest that the actigraph is an appropriate device for measuring motor activity in nonhuman primates.
This paper outlines specific methodologies for conducting research via computer networks. We discuss advantages of Internet experimentation over previous modes of telecommunication-facilitated research and characterize features of studies that can benefit from Internet access and those which are unlikely to. We point out pitfalls and suggest a range of potential solutions in terms of specific practical techniques for managing the design, dissemination, and collection of Internet materials. We also discuss techniques for minimizing attrition and for adapting to recalcitrance presented by “hacker” vandalism.
Content analysis, a technique in which inferences are derived from the communication of interacting parties, is not utilized enough in mainstream negotiation research. The purpose of the present article is to outline the benefits and limitations inherent in the content analysis technique, to provide a comprehensive review of content analysis systems that have been used in the past, and to evaluate the existing systems in an effort to guide readers in the decision process. This article aids the potential consumer—any person considering the use of content analysis in negotiation research—in making informed choices regarding this technique. Choice among existing systems should be based upon one’s research question and upon accepted standards of quality. A system that is relatively comprehensive, well grounded in theory, and demonstrates acceptable levels of reliability is advocated. Specific recommendations regarding quality systems are provided.
This paper addresses the relation between meaning, lexical productivity, and frequency of use. Using density estimation as a visualization tool, we show that differences in semantic structure can be reflected in probability density functions estimated for word frequency distributions. We call attention to an example of a bimodal density, and suggest that bimodality arises when distributions of well-entrenched lexical items, which appear to be lognormal, are mixed with distributions of productively created nonce formations.
TESTAN (TEST and ANalysis) is an authoring shell and integrated psychometric package for development of computerized multiple-choice questionnaires, tests, and personality scales on personal computers that use MS-DOS. TESTAN allows (1) writing and editing items, interpretation messages, keys, norms, a bank of profiles, and so on, (2) collecting data in on-line or paper-and-pencil modes, (3) selecting the most discriminating items by means of correlation and factor analysis for practical use, (4) validating test scales and items according to external criteria and expert ratings, and (5) making multifactor assessment decisions after testing. TESTAN can be used to test student conceptual knowledge in any area in the form of multiple-choice questions. This report describes essential functional properties and facilities of TESTAN for psychometrists and applied psychologists.
Literature instructors are using hypertext to enhance their teaching in a broad variety of ways that includes putting course materials on the WWW; creating online tutorials; using annotated hypertexts in addition to or in lieu of print texts; having students write hypertexts; examining the medium of hypertext as a literary and cultural theme; and studying hypertext fiction in the context of traditional literature classes. The article describes examples of each of these uses of hypertext in teaching literature and provides sources of further examples of and information on using hypertext as a teaching tool in literature classes.
Debate has long been a hallmark of the academic endeavor. The recent introduction of computers into academic life has not been the deus ex machina to bring sudden resolution to these debates. There is a new computing technology, however, that has some promise in this regard. It is called conceptual modeling. This paper' demonstrates how a computer-based model of a problem domain can lead to consensus when competing approaches to the domain can be encapsulated in different visual models that are applied to the same underlying conceptual model.
The Role of Illustrative Examples in Productive Dictionary Use Hilary Nesd Introduction One of the distinguishing features of learners' dictionaries is an abundance of illustrative examples, and lexicographers and reviewers write convincingly of the value of dictionary examples as aids to successful language production. Cowie (1989), for example, claims that a wellconstructed example in a learners' dictionary can show the learnerwriter acceptable complementation patterns, collocations, and native stylistic norms. Other lexicographers, such as Landau (1984, 166), Marello (1987, 226-27), Creamer (1987, 243) and Drysdale (1987) extol the value of examples in a similar vein, implying that, without the benefit of dictionary examples, learner-writers would make many more mistakes. Studies show, however, that learners' dictionaries often fail to provide the information that learners need to avoid producing errors (Huang [1985], Nesi [1987], Meara and English [1988]). Learners have also been found to seriously misinterpret the grammatical, collocational and semantic information learners' dictionaries do provide (Nesi and Meara [1993]). Perhaps the lexicographers' views derive from a consideration ofwhat should happen when a skilled dictionary user consults a skillfully chosen example. Such views may not take into account what does happen when ordinary dictionary users, with a tendency to misread dictionary entries, consult examples that do not adequately reflect all the lexical features that they need to know. The small amount of evidence available from testing and observing learner use ofdictionary examples is far less positive about their usefulness. Black (1986) found no significant difference between com- ____________Illustrative Examples in Productive Dictionary Use_________199 prehension test scores for words defined with examples and words defined without examples, and although Miller and Gildea (1985) found that native-speaker children produced more acceptable sentences when they had access to examples, they decided to draw no definite conclusions from their study (1987, 90). Miller and Gildea's research method had run into problems because, when their subjects were asked to write sentences with the aid of examples, many simply reproduced the examples they had been given. Black's study is also somewhat unreliable because subjects often seemed to have simply guessed the correct multiple choice answer. Both studies also ignored the possibility that subjects might already have known some of the look-up words. The task set in the study is a computer-based version of the productive task devised by Miller and Gildea (1985, 1987). Using a program written by Paul Meara at University College Swansea, I was able to regulate the quantity of dictionary information that appeared on the screen and record not only the sentences produced by each subject, but also the extent to which subjects accessed dictionary information and the length of time spent reading that information. Subjects were prevented from simply repeating example sentences from the dictionary entry, because they were required to include both the target word and a given high frequency word in the sentences they produced. They were also allowed to choose whether or not to access dictionary information before writing each sentence. This made it less likely that subjects would look up words they already knew well; instead, look up was likely to be motivated by inadequate productive knowledge of the target words. The study The best type of EFL dictionary entry is, presumably, one that can be quickly absorbed and put to effective practical use. The two research questions posed for this study therefore concerned these two attributes of the dictionary entry: 1.Do definitions with examples take longer to read than definitions without examples? 2.Are definitions with examples more helpful in productive dictionary use than definitions without examples? Eighteen target words were chosen for the experiment from the 200____ Hilary Nesi middle bands of Nation's "University Word List" (Nation 1990). The words were enlighten, err, gravity, incorporate, intersect, perpetrate, retard, rudimentary, symptom, version, agitate, civic, clarify, collide, compute, controversy, interact, and interlude. A pilot study suggested that the majority of subjects would be unlikely to know these words. Two versions of the test were prepared using entries taken from the second version of the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary Englüh (LDOCE). In each version, example sentences and phrases for half the target words were removed. In version A, examples for the first...
Neural Networks have recently been a matter of extensive research and popularity. Their application has increased considerably in areas in which we are presented with a large amount of data and we have to identify an underlying pattern. This paper will look at their application to stylometry. We believe that statistical methods of attributing authorship can be coupled effectively with neural networks to produce a very powerful classification tool. We illustrate this with an example of a famous case of disputed authorship, The Federalist Papers. Our method assigns the disputed papers to Madison, a result which is consistent with previous work on the subject.
This paper focusses on the types of questions that are raised in the encoding of historical documents. Using the example of a 17th century Scottish Sasine, the authors show how TEI-based encoding can produce a text which will be of major value to a variety of future historical researchers. Firstly, they show how to produce a machine-readable transcription which would be comprehensible to a word-processor as a text stream filled with print and formatting instructions; to a text analysis package as compilation of named text segments of some known structure; and to a statistical package as a set of observations each of which comprises a number of defined and named variables. Secondly, they make provision for a machine-readable transcription where the encoder's research agenda and assumptions are reversible or alterable by secondary analysts who will have access to a maximum amount of information contained in the original source.
A computerized multimedia instructional system has been developed that adheres to behavioral systems principles for presenting both adaptive programmed instructional materials and laboratory simulations. This instructional software system, called MediaMatrix, is both an authoring environment and a presentation vehicle that adapts the complexity of presentations in real time to changes in a student’s current rate of progress. It incorporates an automated knowledge-generation system that tracks all interactions between the user and any instructional objects within the system. Such knowledge is used both for a research database and for an artificial-intelligence engine that constructs an estimate ofconcept association networks (Verplanck, 1992a). Such networks reflect a learner’s developing knowledge and skill base, and may be used for tutorial advising during student use.
Lexical Collocations are frequently occurring word pairs in natural language whose presence are not always predictable by their usage. These collocations are used by native speakers of a language almost without thought; yet they must be learned by non-native speakers of that language. A native speaker of English may drink strong coffee while a non-native speaker may say either $\sp{*}$powerful coffee or $\sp{*}$sturdy coffee. Collocations tend to vary among languages and topic domains. Unfortunately, the task of correctly identifying lexical collocations, even by native speakers of that language, has been shown to be very difficult. Computer systems that translate natural languages, or Machine Translation (MT) systems, need to know about lexical collocation information in order to produce natural sounding or colloquially proper text. Natural Language Generation (NLG) is a component of an MT system which automatically produces natural sounding text in a particular target language given a language-independent meaning as input. This dissertation will demonstrate how to automatically locate and extract lexical collocations from machine-readable text for use within an MT system's NLG component. A lexical-semantic and statistical approach is adopted for the location and extraction of lexical collocations. For this approach, a computational definition is provided for lexical collocations which demonstrates that: (1) they occur as adjacent word pairs; (2) they occur more often than would be expected by chance; and (3) they comprise words for which neither word may be substituted by a synonym or hyponym. Potential collocations comprising certain adjacent part-of-speech tags are extracted from text. An on-line thesaurus and lexical database of word classes are queried for synonyms and hyponyms, respectively, for each potential collocation. These queries create potential challenger pairs, such as strong java and powerful coffee. A substitution procedure is then applied to determine if any of these challenging word pairs occur more frequently than the potential collocation. The VERIFY lexical collocation extraction system has been implemented incorporating these ideas. Results to date have been positive: using lexical-semantic knowledge, i.e., synonymy and hyponymy, within a lexical collocation extraction system outperforms a system using purely statistical knowledge. In order to compare system output to human judgments of training data, a training component was also incorporated into VERIFY. This component is able to adapt to new data. Overall system performance, measured by Recall and Precision scores, was shown to improve using this component. In order to provide a more flexible system given a user's application, a weighting mechanism was used to produce a range of Recall and Precision scores. These weights can be 'adjusted' to optimize system performance. The use of lexical-semantic knowledge has advanced the state of the art for lexical collocation extraction beyond traditional statistical approaches. Incorporation of a training component within an extraction system provides the capability of adapting to any changes within the data. Controlling overall system performance through the use of a weighting mechanism provides flexibility to the user of an extraction system. And, in an experiment to compare VERIFY'S performance to that of human performance on a particular set of data, it was shown that VERIFY outperforms humans in both Recall and Precision.
Many languages make use of word-formation devices to allow speakers or writers to create new words when the existing vocabulary proves inadequate. In this paper we consider how these devices can be expressed formally, allowing them to be used in word- and sentence-generation, for dictionary expansion, and the like. The paper begins with some typical word-formation rules drawn mostly from French. Attention is drawn to some features of these rules which must be captured in any formal representation. The formal representation of a basic lexical transformation is presented in some detail, along with a number of examples. A computer implementation of the transformation system is described, together with a range of applications. A discussion of static and dynamic generation leads to the concept of an inverted transformation.
Many aspects of the guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) are applicable to corpora and text collections, and to the texts that these contain. As the first large corpus developed using mark-up conforming to the guidelines, the British National Corpus (BNC) is a test-bed for many TEI-developed mechanisms. This is particularly true in the case of the TEI header, which has three intended applications — to describe a corpus, to describe an individual text, and as a free-standing bibliographic record — all of them used by the BNC. This paper describes the application of the TEI header to the BNC. It is intended that this information should, through a description of experience on a practical project, serve as a guide for those wishing to use TEI headers in the documentation and management of other corpora and collections of texts.
There are many ways in which to estimate thresholds from psychometric functions. However, almost nothing is known about the relationships between these estimates. In the present experiment, Monte Carlo techniques were used to compare psychometric thresholds obtained using six methods. Three psychometric functions were simulated using Naka-Rushton and Weibull functions and a probit/logit function combination. Thresholds were estimated using probit, logit, and normit analyses and least-squares regressions of untransformed orz-score and logit-transformed probabilities versus stimulus strength. Histograms were derived from 100 thresholds using each of the six methods for various sampling strategies of each psychometric function. Thresholds from probit, logit, and normit analyses were remarkably similar. Thresholds fromz-score- and logit-transformed regressions were more variable, and linear regression produced biased threshold estimates under some circumstances. Considering the similarity of thresholds, the speed of computation, and the ease of implementation, logit and normit analyses provide effective alternatives to the current “gold standard”—probit analysis—for the estimation of psychometric thresholds.
This article describes the major problems in devising a TEI encoding format for dictionaries, which, because of their high degree of structuring and compression of information, are among the most complex text types treated in the TEI. The major problems for this task were (1) the tension between generality of the description, in order to be widely applicable across dictionaries, and descriptive power, that is, the ability to describe with precision the particular structure of any given dictionary; and (2) the need to accommodate different views and uses of the encoded dictionary, for example, as printed object and as a database of information.
In this paper we show, for the first time, how Radial Basis Function (RBF) network techniques can be used to explore questions surrounding authorship of historic documents. The paper illustrates the technical and practical aspects of RBF's, using data extracted from works written in the early 17th century by William Shakespeare and his contemporary John Fletcher. We also present benchmark comparisons with other standard techniques for contrast and comparison.
The article gives a general introduction to the form and function of the TEI header, points out some of the reasoning of the Text Documentation Committee that went into its design, and discusses some of its limitations. The TEI header's major strength is that it gives encoders the ability to document the electronic text itself, its source, its encoding principles, revisions, and characteristics of the text in an interchange format. Its bibliographical descriptions can be loaded into standard remote bibliographic databases, which should make electronic texts as easy to find for researchers as texts in other media, including print. Its major weakness is that it does not yet provide the ability for retrieval across texts in a networked environment, which users may want now or in the future.
Small groups are called upon to make important policy decisions under a wide variety of procedural constraints. ACPE is a flexible, computerized system for conducting small-group voting experiments. It permits researchers to examine the impact of electronic communication on group deliberation and choice. The system runs under a variety of different personal computer networks and is designed to permit the specification of voting rules, communication, and group sizes. The system also facilitates the study of group process by tracking all messages sent and votes taken. An experiment in which the system was used is briefly described.
ABSTRACT: This paper analyzes the data from three questionnaires administered to Pakistani male and female journalists, teachers, and university students in Islamabad, Karachi, and Lahore during a period from 1987 to 1992. The first questionnaire deals with respondents’(320) choice of a model of English (British, American, or Pakistani). The second and third questionnaires measure the acceptability of selected Pakistani English lexical and grammatical items (150 respondents) and complementation types (165 respondents). Results show that while an exonormative model of English (British) still has considerable influence in the former colony (in both ‘ideal’ as well as in reported ‘actual’ usage), a Pakistani norm is also beginning to emerge. This trend is most evident in respondents’ acceptance of typically Pakistani features of English such as Urdu borrowings, Urdu‐English hybrids, and local morphological and syntactic innovations.