Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
18265 papers
The paper describes SENSE, a word sense disambiguation system thatmakes use of different types of cues to infer the most likelysense of a word given its context. Architecture and functioning ofthe system are briefly illustrated. Results are given for theROMANSEVAL Italian test corpus of verbs.
TLC is a supervised training (S) system that uses a Bayesianstatistical model and features of a word's context to identifyword sense. We describe the classifier's operation and how itcan be configured to use only topical context cues, only localcues, or a combination of both. Our results on Senseval'sfinal run are presented along with a comparison to theperformance of the best S system and the average for S systems.We discuss ways to improve TLC by enriching its featureset and by substituting other decision procedures for the Bayesianmodel. Future development of supervised training classifiers willdepend on the availability of tagged training data. TLC canassist in the hand-tagging effort by helping human taggers locateinfrequent senses of polysemous words.
This article examines the reliance of U.S. campuses on international teaching assistants (ITA) for staffing undergraduate course and the strategies that may affect ratings of their speaking competence. This increasing reliance has led to student complaints about incomprehensibility of ITA. This problem has been examined by looking through the eyes of the students, administrators and taxpayers. Therefore, the responsibility had been placed on the ITA, whose burden it was to learn the language and culture more fully. The goal of having ITA learn the language and culture better was eclipsing another important issue that needs consideration, the issue of teaching assistant's feelings of loss of control over the students' perception about themselves.
The Internet presents a potentially revolutionary tool in the dissemination of scientific information, offering many advantages to authors and audiences. However, this resource has been underutilized in psychological research because of several factors: unfamiliarity with required technology, lack of peer review, absence of an efficient centralized accessibility resource, concerns about copyright issues, and financial considerations. The present article describes the advantages of on-line presentation of research, as well as discusses various concerns about on-line publishing and the developing solutions to deal with those concerns.
A number of studies in perception, attention, and memory employ signal detection theory (SDT) to assess the accuracy of an observer’s detection or discrimination performance. Some of the problems that students have with understanding and using SDT are associated with the calculations needed to obtain SDT parameters and predictions. All of these calculations, plus the simulation of SDT processes, can be performed using a spreadsheet application program, such as Excel or Quattro Pro. This paper offers a short tutorial on how to use a spreadsheet program to increase your students’ knowledge and understanding of SDT.
Boundary extension refers to a tendency to remember seeing a greater expanse of a scene than was shown in a photograph. It is hypothesized that the view shown in the stimulus activates expectations about the scene’s layout just outside the picture’s borders. Following presentation, the viewer remembers having seen this expected information, and this yields boundary extension. We provide photographs and instructions for conducting two brief demonstrations of the phenomenon and provide materials for a related class experiment on the journal’s World-Wide Web site. These demonstrations of boundary extension provide graphic illustrations of the role of schematic expectancies in the representation of scenes and help to illustrate the role of real-world knowledge in cognition.
This paper describes morphing techniques to manipulate two-dimensional human face images and three-dimensional models of the human head. Applications of these techniques show how to generate composite faces based on any number of component faces, how to change only local aspects of a face, and how to generate caricatures and anticaricatures of faces. These techniques are potentially useful for many psychological studies because they permit realistic images to be generated with precise control.
The journals of the Psychonomic Society have served as outlets for numerous stimulus norms and ratings. Such norms are useful to researchers in a variety of areas for manipulating and controlling stimulus attributes. This article presents an index of 142 norms published in the Society’s journals, categorized according to the types of materials and ratings that are included in each.
Electronic texts are claimed to exhibit features distinct from their more tangible cousins. The Snapshot project aims to observe and capture language usage in an electronic medium by creating an open corpus of World Wide Web documents. These documents are re-encoded using the TEI guidelines to create a flexible, persistent and portable data repository. This report gives an overview of the decisions made with respect to the re-encoding of HTML documents, and with the structuring the overall corpus.
A study commissioned by the Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions produced some interesting secondary findings about the attitudes of the Canadian research community towards digitized facsimile collections. In written responses to a questionnaire designed primarily to elicit advice about the subject content and focus of future projects, and in structured follow-up interviews, many respondents demonstrated a marked ambivalence towards the concept of digitized collections. Furthermore, if faced with a choice between fully searchable text and digitized facsimile images with traditional points of access (subject, author, title, etc.), there appears to be a preference for the latter means of access.
Elementary dependency relationships between words within parse trees produced by robust analyzers on a corpus help automate the discovery of semantic classes relevant for the underlying domain. We introduce two methods for extracting elementary syntactic dependencies from normalized parse trees. The groupings which are obtained help identify coarse-grain semantic categories and isolate lexical idiosyncrasies belonging to a specific sublanguage. A comparison shows a satisfactory overlapping with an existing nomenclature for medical language processing. This symbolic approach is efficient on medium size corpora which resist to statistical clustering methods but seems more appropriate for specialized texts.
This paper develops a solution to the problem of importing existing TEI data into an existing object-oriented database schema without changing the TEI data or the database schema. The solution is based on architectural processing. Two meta-DTDs are used, one to define the architectural forms for the object model and another to map the existing SGML data onto those forms. A full example using a critical text in TEI markup is developed.
In this essay present the outlines of a cognitively motivated, discourseanalytical approach to metaphor in poetry. will begin by emphasizing that analysis has to be seen in the context of the more encompassing framework of research into the relation between language structure and process. will then adopt one particular starting point in a three-dimensional approach to metaphor as expression, idea, and utterance, presenting the groundwork for a conceptual taxonomy of metaphor. In particular, distinctions will be introduced between simple and complex metaphor, restricted and extended metaphor, and explicit and implicit metaphor. All of these distinctions are independent of each other. They also require support from linguistic and communicative metaphor analysis. Finally, will apply these principles to the first two lines of William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud, revealing how the linguistic, conceptual, and communicative structure of these lines interact to produce an intricate piece of poetry. Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics Since 1980, when George Lakoff and Mark Johnson's Metaphors We Live By was published, it has become a common assumption among many linguists, psychologists, and literary theorists that metaphor should be regarded as a conceptual and not as a linguistic phenomenon (see also Ungerer and Schmidt 1996; Gibbs 1994; Steen 1994). The distinction between linguistic and conceptual metaphor, now widely accepted, has given Poetics Today 20:3 (Fall 1999) Copyright? 1999 by the Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics. This content downloaded from 207.46.13.0 on Sat, 16 Apr 2016 06:22:08 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 500 Poetics Today 20:3 rise to a wealth of studies of metaphor as thought. The claim that conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous in language and culture has led to the discovery of many cross-linguistic conventional conceptual metaphors involving non-literal mappings between distinct domains of knowledge that organize our knowledge about those domains in standard but metaphorical ways. The familiar examples include our views of abstract concepts such as LIFE or LOVE as JOURNEYS. That is why metaphors have become things we live by rather than the linguistic oddities that they were long thought to be. There are at least two immediate consequences for the linguistic study of metaphor. The first concerns the very aspect of linguistic oddity just mentioned, or the role of deviance. Since many of the metaphors studied by cognitive linguists over the past two decades are part of conventional conceptual metaphors, they also give rise to standard ways of talking about things by ordinary users. Their surface forms do not strike one as deviant but natural. As a result, literal meaning has now been defined as that kind of meaning which is a direct expression of experience, whereas non-literal meaning involves the kind of mapping from one conceptual domain to another that is characteristic of metaphor (Lakoff 1986). A related distinction is the one between congruent and incongruent expressions (Halliday 1985), where congruent expressions suggest a direct matching between our words and ways in which we conceptualize the world, whereas incongruent expressions do not. For instance, If am reporting the success of a mountaineering expedition, instead of writing they at the summit on thefifth day may choose an expression such as thefifth day saw them at the summit. Here the time 'the fifth day' has been dressed up to look as if it was a participant, an onlooker 'seeing' the climbers when they arrived (Halliday 1985: 322). But what is important is that non-literal or incongruent meaning does not have to be deviant in the sense that it is semantically inacceptable. Non-literal meaning does not necessarily entail deviance, but may equally represent the norm, for metaphor may be the only conventional means available to the language user to communicate about a particular domain of experience. As a result, it has become possible to write learners' dictionaries of lexicalized metaphorical mappings between conceptual domains in connection with large and common semantic fields such as heat (Deignan 1995). The other consequence of the changed relation between linguistic and conceptual metaphor concerns the stylistic or rhetorical realization of conceptual metaphor as a specific figure of speech. Whether a conceptual metaphor is expressed as a metaphor, a simile, an analogy, an extended non-literal comparison, or even an allegory, these are surface variations This content downloaded from 207.46.13.0 on Sat, 16 Apr 2016 06:22:08 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Steen * Analyzing Metaphor in Literature 501 of the same underlying conceptual structure. In other words, conceptual metaphor may be related to a variety of rhetorical forms in language, the choice of which will have to be investigated in relation to possible alternatives in a particular context. For instance, Ravid Aisenman (1997) has suggested that metaphor and simile serve to express different types of metaphorical comparisons, while John Kennedy (1997), in work with Don Chiappe, has argued that felt differences in the strength of a claim advanced by metaphor and simile are to be related to their function in
Over the years, many proposals have been made to incorporate assorted types of feature in language models. However, discrepancies between training sets, evaluation criteria, algorithms, and hardware environments make it difficult to compare the models objectively. In this paper, we take an information theoretic approach to select feature types in a systematic manner. We describe a quantitative analysis of the information gain and the information redundancy for various combinations of feature types inspired by both dependency structure and bigram structure, using a Chinese treebank and taking word prediction as the object. The experiments yield several conclusions on the predictive value of several feature types and feature types combinations for word prediction, which are expected to provide guidelines for feature type selection in language modeling.
This paper challenges traditional notions of plagiarism as an act of academic deviance and suggests that, particularly for LBOTE students.'plagiarism'is often a text-based practice that reflects different cultural and linguistic norms. The author suggests that western institutions' ambivalent and inconsistent approach to the practice further clouds the issue for students and teachers
There is a general concern within the field of word sense dusamb~guatmn about the rater-annotator agreement between human annota tors. In thus paper, we examine th~s msue by comparing the agreement rate on a large corpus of more than 30,000 sense-tagged instances Thin corpus us the mtersectmn of the WORDNET Semcor corpus and the DSO corpus, which has been independently tagged by two separate groups of human annotators The contribution of this paper us two-fold First, ~t presents a greedy search algori thm tha t can automatical ly derive coarser sense classes based on the sense tags assigned by two human annotators The resulting derived coarse sense classes achmve a h~gher agreement rate but we s t f l!mamtam as many of the original sense classes as posmble Second, the coarse sense grouping derived by the algorithm, upon verification by human, can potent ial ly serve as a better sense inventory for evaluating automated word sense d~samb~guatmn algori thms Moreover, we examined the derived coarse sense classes and found some interesting groupings of word senses that correspond to human mtmtlve judgment of sense granularity 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n. It us widely acknowledged that word sense d~samblguatmn (WSD) us a central problem m natural language processing In order for computers to be able to understand and process natural language beyond simple keyword matching, the problem of d~samblguatmg word sense, or dlscermng the meamng of a word m context, must be effectively dealt with Advances in WSD v, ill have slgmficant Impact on apphcatlons hke information retrieval and machine translation For natural language subtasks hke part-of-speech tagging or s)ntactm parsing, there are relatlvely well defined and agreed-upon cnterm of what it means to have the correct part of speech or syntactic structure assigned to a word or sentence For instance, the Penn Treebank corpus (Marcus et a l, 1993) pro~ide~,t large repo.~tory of texts annotated w~th partof-speech and s}ntactm structure mformatlon Tv.o independent human annotators can achieve a high rate of agreement on assigning part-of-speech tags to words m a g~ven sentence Unfortunately, th~s us not the case for word sense assignment F~rstly, it is rarely the case that any two dictionaries will have the same set of sense defimtmns for a g~ven word Different d~ctlonanes tend to carve up the semantic space m a different way, so to speak Secondly, the hst of senses for a word m a typical dmtmnar~ tend to be rather refined and comprehensive This is especmlly so for the commonly used words which have a large number of senses The sense dustmctmn between the different senses for a commonly used word m a d~ctmnary hke WoRDNET (Miller, 1990) tend to be rather fine Hence, two human annotators may genuinely dusagree m their sense assignment to a word m context The agreement rate between human annotators on word sense assignment us an Important concern for the evaluatmn of WSD algorithms One would prefer to define a dusamblguatlon task for which there us reasonably hlgh agreement between human annotators The agreement rate between human annotators will then form the upper ceiling against whmh to compare the performance of WSD algorithms For instance, the SENSEVAL exerclse has performed a detaded s tudy to find out the raterannotator agreement among ~ts lexicographers taggrog the word senses (Kllgamff, 1998c, Kllgarnff, 1998a, Kflgarrlff, 1998b) 2 A C a s e S t u d y In th i s -paper, we examine the ~ssue of raterannotator agreement by comparing the agreement rate of human annotators on a large sense-tagged corpus of more than 30,000 instances of the most frequently occurring nouns and verbs of Enghsh This corpus is the intersection of the WORDNET Semcor corpus (Miller et a l, 1993) and the DSO corpus (Ng and Lee, 1996, Ng, 1997), which has been independently tagged wlth the refined senses of WORDNET by two separate groups of human annotators The Semcor corpus us a subset of the Brown corpus tagged with ~VoRDNET senses, and consists of more than 670,000 words from 352 text files Sense taggmg was done on the content words (nouns, ~erbs, adjectives and adverbs) m this subset The DSO corpus consists of sentences drawn from the Brown corpus and the Wall Street Journal For each word w from a hst of 191 frequently occurring words of Enghsh (121 nouns and 70 verbs), sentences containing w (m singular or plural form, and m its various reflectional verb form) are selected and each word occurrence w ~s tagged w~th a sense from WoRDNET There ~s a total of about 192,800 sentences in the DSO corpus m which one word occurrence has been sense-tagged m each sentence The intersection of the Semcor corpus and the DSO corpus thus consists of Brown corpus sentences m which a word occurrence w is sense-tagged m each sentence, where w Is one of.the 191 frequently oc,currmg English nouns or verbs Since this common pomon has been sense-tagged by two independent groups of human annotators, ~t serves as our data set for investigating inter-annotator agreement in this paper
ResumenCuando durante el proceso de adquisición los niños vascos comienzan a construir enunciados de dos o más palabras, atraviesan un período en el que no utilizan conocimientos gramaticales o sintácticos al construir sus producciones lingüísticas. Tras este período presintáctico en el que la producción lingüística es construida basándose en principios semántico-pragmáticos, los niños vascos, hacia la edad de 2;00, inician un desarrollo sintáctico gradual y de algún modo calificable como uniforme. El presente trabajo analiza la producción lingüística de tres niños vascos, dos bilingües vasco-castellanos y un monolingüe, que fueron videograbados quincenalmente desde 1;06 hasta 3;00 de edad, durando las sesiones unos 30 minutos. Dadas las características morfológicas del euskera, resulta relativamente sencillo identificar la utilización o no de las mismas por parte de los niños. Se observarán las unidades lingüísticas fundamentales: determinación y estructura del sintagma nominal, casos declinativos, morfología verbal, órdenes de las preguntas Qu, etc. También conviene señalar que el posterior desarrollo sintáctico que tienen lugar no surge de la utilización de los principios semántico-pragmáticos, sino que más bien es independiente de ellos.AbstractWhen Basque children begin to produce multiword utterances during their language acquisition process, they go through a first period characterized by a lack of grammatical or syntactic knowledge when constructing their language productions. After this presyntactic period, when language production is mainly based on semantic-pragmatic principles, Basque children show, towards the age of 2;00, a gradual syntactic development which could be considered as uniform. The present study analyses the language production of three Basque children, two of them Basque-Spanish bilinguals, and the third a Basque monolingual, videotaped fortnightly from the age of 1;06 until 3;00, in 30 minute sessions. Due to the pronounced nature of Basque morphology, it is not difficult to determine whether it is used or not by these children. We will take note of the most important morphological characteristics: determination and structure of noun phrases, case markings, verbal morphology, word order in Wh-questions, etc. We would also like to point out that the subsequent syntactic development does not emerge from semantic-pragmatic principles. On the contrary, it is quite independent.Extended SummaryIt can be affirmed that in the process of acquisition of Basque, children go through a pre-syntactic phase during which they do not use grammatical properties, nor do they base their language production on syntactic rules. The subsequent syntactic development begins towards the age of two and seems to develop gradually, according to basic sentence structure. it is the mental, neurological maturity, activating the biologically inherited principles of Universal Grammar, which makes possible the development of the grammar process, since grammar is independent of the semantic-pragmatic principles which children seem to be using during the previous pre-syntactic period.I have elaborated this working hypothesis on the basis of other studies and investigations analysing different L1 acquisition processes. I would like to point out the importance of studies carried out in this area by: Bickerton (1990), theorising on general acquisition processes; Radford (1989), who, analysing early English, observed the lack of INFL and COMP functional categories; Platzack (1990), who arrived at similar conclusions observing the process of acquisition of Swedish; Meisel (1992), who, investigating the acquisition of French and German by bilingual children, established an early stage of language lacking the above-mentioned functional categories, etc.In order to give support to our hypothesis I have observed the language production of three Basque children, two of them bilinguals and the third one monolingual. They have been video-taped fortnightly from the age of 1;06 to the age of 3;00, in 30 minute sessions.Basque is a morphologically clearly marked language as to case markings as well as verbal conjugation. This fact simplifies the identification of the use of differentiated morphological elements. I have analysed determiners and internal structure in the process of NP acquisition; case marking: so-called grammatical markings (with verbal agreement) as well as non-grammatical ones; the verbal aspect; triple verbal agreement (subject, direct object, and indirect object); verbal tense and mode; subordinating conjunctions (temporal and non-temporal); word order in WH-questions, and word order in the first declarative utterances.After describing these acquisition processes, i can state that there evidently exists an early, pre-syntactic stage, during which the children do not use case markings or syntactic structures. After this period, the three children analysed show a gradual syntactic development, which can somehow be qualified as uniform, towards the age of 2;00. The three children first start using the VP structure and NP determiners, difference case markings and auxiliary verbs. The use of the functional category INFL, which permits them to use subject agreement, comes later. Subsequently, the acquisition of the functional category COMP, permits them to use subordinating temporal conjunctions or the construction of WH-questions according to adult norms. i should like to point out that due to the complexity of INFL in Basque, it seems evident that the use of this category by the children during the language acquisition process will be gradual.As to the pre-syntactic period, during which not only lexical acquisition but also the acquisition of different lexical categories is evident, I can say that a great part of the construction of two-or-more word utterances follows semantic-pragmatical principles, which are quite normal in adult spoken Basque. Since these principles are used during the whole of the following syntactic development, always adjoining the theme to the left of the structure used at each moment, i.e., at the beginning of the utterance, it seems evident that the acquisition of syntax is independent of the semantic-pragmatic principles used.Palabras clave: Adquisición de lenguajecategorías funcionales (INFL, COMP)desarrollo sintáctico gradualeuskeraperíodo presintácticoprincipios semántico-pragmáticosKeywords: Language acquisitionfunctional categories (INFL, COMP)gradual syntactic developmentBasque languagepresyntactic periodsemantic-pragmatic principles
Corpus linguistics, lexical semantics, DANwORD, Zinkernagel, cognitive semantics
In this paper, we propose an error correction method using text corpora. In this method, recognition errors are corrected using phonetically similar examples in the text corpora. The reliability of the correction hypotheses are judged according to their semantic consistency and their phonetic similarity to the original input. We previously proposed an error correction method that uses a treebank [1]. However, the previous method was not flexible in its use of examples, because structural mismatches occurred between the input and examples due to recognition errors. In our new proposal, examples are treated as morpheme sequences. This enables us to use examples partially when there are no useful full-sentence-examples. We built our proposed method into a speech translation system and compared the translation quality for simple translation and translation with error correction. The rate of acceptable translation increased about 10% with our proposed method compared to simple translation.
In this paper we develop a formalization of semantic relations that facilitates efficient implementations of relations in lexical databases or knowledge representation systems using bases. The formalization of relations is based on a modeling of hierarchical relations in Formal Concept Analysis. Further, relations are analyzed according to Relational Concept Analysis, which allows a representation of semantic relations consisting of relational components and quantificational tags. This representation utilizes mathematical properties of semantic relations. The quantificational tags imply inheritance rules among semantic relations that can be used to check the consistency of relations and to reduce the redundancy in implementations by storing only the basis elements of semantic relations. The research presented in this paper is an example of an application of Relational Concept Analysis to lexical databases and knowledge representation systems (cf. Priss 1996) which is part of a larger framework of research on natural language analysis and formalization.
The act of healing essentially includes a spiritual or religious component, and language is often a prime medium for enacting it. Personal narratives are sites for the negotiation and construction of cultural and linguistic norms; healing stories recontextualize bodily struggles as social and spiritual conflicts. This paper examines a personal narrative of spiritual healing told in the language of Rastafari, the Jamaican religious movement. A discourse analysis of the narrative focuses on elements of Rasta Talk in order to discover how Rastafarian beliefs underlie and shape the telling, which is itself an act of faith and a profession of commitment. The healing itself, however, draws primarily on a variety of nonRasta spiritual and occult traditions of Jamaican folk culture; their relation to Rastafari, and the reasons for employing Rasta religious rhetoric in the narrative, are also explored. Rasta Talk, a register of Jamaican Creole (JC) undergoing functional expansion, is characteristically (though by no means exclusively) used by Jamaicans who follow the Rastafari religion. Rastafari is a syncretic Afro-Christian faith which invokes and reinterprets Old Testament Biblical imagery in the service of particular religious, cultural and political themes. This narrative of supernatural illness and cure applies a historical critique of colonialism and racism to the healthcare system, allows the teller to reposition himself discursively to alleviate suffering and stigma, and claims the moral high ground for AfroJamaican ethnomedical practices and traditional values through the enactment of Rastafarian principles. Rastafari is briefly introduced first in relation to other Jamaican faith traditions, and Rasta Talk is described. The narrative is outlined chronologically. Subsequent analysis links linguistic features to key elements of Rasta beliefs, which – together with elements of Jamaican folk medicine and culture – provide the necessary context to understand the healing narrative as an act of identity.
This study describes the typical course and variability in major areas of communicative development for 228 Swedish-speaking children between 8 and 16 months of age. The assessments were made by parental reports with the Swedish Early Communicative Development Inventories (SECDI) using a semi-longitudinal design. Age-based norms for understanding of phrases, vocabulary comprehension, vocabulary production and use of gestures are described at the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th and 90th percentile levels. More lexical verbs were found among the first words in comprehension than in production. An extensive variability within individuals in onset and development was found for the assessed skills. The individual differences proved to be stable over 4–6 months. No gender differences were found for comprehension of phrases, total gestures, vocabulary compre-hension, or for vocabulary production. Strong, unique associations were found between total gestures and vocabulary comprehension and between vocabulary comprehension and vocabulary production. In contrast, no unique association was found between gestures and vocabulary production. The results generally concur with those reported for English-speaking American children by Fenson et al. (1993, 1994).
The digitization of library documents and archives increasingly extends to audiovisual (AV) document repositories. As a consequence, new computer-aided techniques are being devised, providing opportunities for new uses of AV documents. As scholars work mainly by reading, annotating, reusing, and producing documents they are directly concerned by these changes. The first part of this article describes AV document use in the humanities, as well as the current and future influence computers might have on evolving practices. After establishing that “full-indexing” (indexing of the content for random access to any segment of an AV document) is a necessary condition if scholars are to develop new practices in using AV material, we will focus on the specific problems raised by AV indexing as opposed to text indexing, followed by a discussion of related AV indexing projects as well as standardization issues. The third part will propose a representation model for the description of AV material (AI-Strata) and an exchange format of AV annotations (AEDI), based on a free segmentation approach. An example of annotation is also provided. The last part is devoted to a discussion regarding potential long-term influences of digital AV indexing techniques on scholarly uses of AV documents.
The use of the Inside-Outside (IO) algorithm for the estimation of the probability distributions of Stochastic ContextFree Grammars is characterized by the use of all the derivations in the learning process. However, its application in real tasks for Language Modeling is restricted due to the that it needs to converge. Alternatively, several estimations algorithms which consider a certain subset of derivations in the estimation process have been proposed elsewhere. This set of derivations can be chosen according to structural criteria, or by selecting the k-best derivations. These alternatives are studied in this paper, and they are tested on the corpus of the Wall Street Journal processed in the Penn Treebank project.
We tested new analytic procedures for combining an observer's image-ratings of lesion-likelihood with localization reports that are incomplete (unavailable on images rated as 'normal') and/or imprecise (possibly scored as 'correct' by chance), and for fitting a constrained ROC formulation to the rating data alone. Eight radiologist readers in a previous study had rated the likelihood of nodular lesions on each of 250 chest-film cases (39 with subtle nodules, 36 with 'typical' nodules and 175 normal cases) that were presented in two display modes (original films or on video workstation). Ratings in the four positive categories (2 to 5) were accompanied by reports that grossly localized the suspected nodules into one of 7 film- regions (upper, middle or lower portions of left or right lung field, or retrocardiac), but there was no localization for the cases rated as 'normal' (category 1). In each of 29 sets of data, we estimated the area below the ROC curve (A<SUB>z</SUB>) and its standard error using three different fits: (1) the usual ROC formulation, (2) the constrained ROC formulation and (3) the new procedure that included incomplete and imprecise localization data (I&I). Estimates of A<SUB>z</SUB> from the usual and constrained ROC fits were quite similar unless the standard ROC exhibited an upward 'hook,' but standard errors of A<SUB>z</SUB> were always the same or smaller for the constrained ROC fit. The I&I fit that included localization data often estimated A<SUB>z</SUB> to be either larger or smaller than the usual or constrained ROC fits that considered only the rating data, but its A<SUB>z</SUB> had substantially smaller standard errors in 28 of the 29 sets of observer data.
We examined male and female abservers' reactions to the use of touch by a nurse towards a patient in a hospital situation. The results suggest that an overrall pattern for observers to react more favorably to the nurse touch compared to no touch in interacting with patients may be judged in part by the attitudes of males and females about the use of touch. The generally favorable reaction to the use of touch by a nurse is consistent with Lewis et al's (1995) study. However, in contrast to their study, there were no differences in the nurse's supportiveness, competence, affect ratings and nurse's confidence in the low touch and high touch conditions.
The rapid political changes that have taken place in Eastern Europe over the past five years have brought about a sudden disintegration of many well-established social, economic and cultural patterns. This process is clearly visible in the languages of the former 'socialist camp'. Standard Russian (the Russian literary language) has in the past few years undergone such far-reaching changes that it is already possible to speak of its having acquired a new functional status: by escaping the tight boundaries of a rigorous purism and by a renewal of its lexical and phraseological resources, it has become much more democratic, cosmopolitan and dynamic. Where there was formerly a set of rules drawn up by 'the guardians of the purity of the Russian language', who used as their models either the literature of the classics and of the 'socialist realist' period or else the clichés of bureaucratic 'journalese', a preference is now shown for the language of the 'de-sovietised' mass media and for a spontaneous living language (including sub-standard elements and various forms of slang) which is no longer subject to the control of censors or the army of in-house editors. It is significant that under the pressure of the present language situation even those linguists who until recently were not prepared to contemplate any departure from the strict principles of 'language purity' or 'language culture' (культура речи) are now forced either to rely on the fluid and in many respects subjective criterion of 'language taste' (языковой вкус) or else to recognise the existence of a 'vulgarisation of the present-day literary norm' (вульгаризация современной литературной нормы).1KeywordsShock TherapyRussian LanguageSlavonic LanguageLanguage SituationLanguage CultureThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
En esta tesis se estudian las Gramaticas Incontextuales Probabilisticas y su aplicacion en problemas de Modelizacion del Lenguaje, Dos son los grandes problemas que se va a considerar en este tipo de modelos: el aprendizaje de las funciones de probabilidad asociadas a las reglas, y su integracion como modelo de interpretacion en tareas complejas de Modelizacion del Lenguaje. En primero de los problemas que se estudia es la estimacion de las funciones de probabilidad asociadas a las reglas.Se presentan y estudian dos de los algoritmos clasicos de estimacion de las GIP, el algoritmo Inside-Outside y el algoritmo basado en las cuentas de Viterbi. Despues se proponen nuevos algoritmos de estimacion en los cuales se utiliza un subconjunto especifico de derivaciones e cada cadena. Finalmente,los algoritmos propuestos se aplican al conjunto de datos del Penn Treebank para ilustrar su comportamiento en la practica. Por utlimo se aborda el problema de la interpretacion e integracion de las Gramaticas Incontextuales Probabilisticas en problemas de Modelizacion del Lenguaje. A continuacion se hace una propuesta de integracion que combina modelos de $n$-gramas a nivel de palabras con una Gramatica Incontextual Probabilistica a nivel de categorias lexicas.
Consciousness of the arbitrary nature of language, its essential conventionality (in the sense not of conformity, but of operating in accordance with tacitly agreed codes which have no naturally inherent laws) has become a major feature of twentieth-century poetry. It is almost, one is tempted to say, the defining feature of the modern, were it not that post-modern poetry is still more marked by it than classical modernism of the Pound-Eliot-Williams upheaval. By freeing poetry from the demands of consecutive syntax and claiming as its own the modern cinematic technique of juxtaposing images for primarily emotional/dramatic effect, modernism opened the way to further experiments in the breaking down of accepted assumptions governing verbal expression. Once the standard of 'correct', transparent English, whether spoken or, still more significantly, printed, was breached, it became possible to question the conventions of presentation which educated writers and readers had come to take as inviolable rules, and which are still treated as such in the language of scientific, journalistic and critical discourse. It became possible for transgression, or non-observance, of the rules to function on a positively sophisticated, rather than vulgarly negative, level — though this, of course, also presupposes general familiarity and conformity with them, since the abnormal effects of dispensing with them, or operating them in unfamiliar ways, depends on the existence of a strong feeling for them as the linguistic norm.
Discusses the linguistic influences on an electronic publishing infrastructure in an environment with unstable linguistic standardization from the computational point of view. Essentially, in Serbia in the last half of the century (at least) publishing is based on the following facts: two alphabetic systems are regularly in use with the possibility to mix both alphabets in the same document; the various dialects are accepted as a part of a linguistic norm; orthography is unstable ‐ presently, several linguistic attitudes that have different views of the orthographic norm are under discussion; and, in Serbia, many minority languages are in use, which makes it difficult to provide efficient contact between different communities through electronic publishing. In this context, a systematic solution that responds to this complex situation has not been developed in the frame of traditional Serbian linguistics and lexicography in a way that enables the adequate incorporation of the new publishing technologies. Owing to these constraints, the direct application of electronic publishing tools frequently causes the degradation of the linguistic message. In such an environment, the promotion of electronic publishing therefore needs specific solutions. The paper discusses the general frame based on the specifically encoded system of electronic dictionaries that makes electronic texts independent of some of the mentioned constraints. The objective of such a frame is to enable the linguistic normalization of texts at the level of their internal representation, and to establish bridges for communicating with other language societies. Some aspects of electronic text representation that ensures its correct interpretation in different graphical systems and in different dialects are described. This also allows text indexing and retrieval using the same techniques that are available for languages not burdened with these problems.
This study tested anticipated affect as a potential strategy for reducing risky single-occasion drinking (RSOD). The hypothesis was that asking respondents to focus on their anticipated affect following RSOD would lead to higher ratings of negative affect than those obtained when asking respondents to focus on their feelings towards RSOD. In turn, these negative affect ratings were hypothesized as leading to safer behavioural estimates and reductions in RSOD. The study is based on a self-report questionnaire administered at two time points. At Time 1, measures of past drinking and demographic information were collected, along with affect ratings of drinking within safer single-occasion limits and affect ratings of RSOD (within-subjects condition). Time perspective was manipulated whereby the experimental group was asked to focus on affective reactions after RSOD and the control group to focus on affective reactions towards RSOD (between-subjects condition). Two weeks later, drinking behaviour was measured. The findings showed that the time perspective manipulation resulted in significantly higher negative affect ratings in the feeling after condition than in the feeling towards condition. Further, females reported lower negative affect than males. No other main or interaction effects were found. The time perspective manipulation, however, failed to produce safer behavioural estimates and RSOD reduction at follow-up. No significant differences were found between ratings of negative affect when drinking within safe limits as compared with ratings of affect when drinking above such limits. Despite greater negative affect 'after' rather than 'toward' the target behaviour, anticipated affect following RSOD did not yield safer behavioural estimates and subsequent drinking reduction at follow-up. These findings are interpreted in the context of risk perception associated with RSOD. The implications of this study for design of interventions aimed at reducing RSOD are discussed. In particular, ways of intensifying negative affect for RSOD are considered.
Electronic texts are claimed to exhibit features distinct from their more tangible cousins. The Snapshot project aims to observe and capture language usage in an electronic medium by creating an open corpus of World Wide Web documents. These documents are re-encoded using the TEI guidelines to create a flexible, persistent and portable data repository. This report gives an overview of the decisions made with respect to the re-encoding of HTML documents, and with the structuring the overall corpus.
This article discusses the principal problems of delimiting the scope of adverbs and their classification in terms of lexicology, lexicography and natural language processing, with a view to making the exhaustive lexical database for adverbs as well as to developing the description models which lead to the construction of the lexicon. Our discussion is not limited to the adverbs in traditional sense, but extended to the mono-/poly lexical words which can be considered as adverbials morphologically, syntactically and lexicologically. For instance, N + postposition(distributionally very limited), limited and/or productive inflectional forms of verbs and adjectives, and fixed forms of phrases and sentences which we consider as compound adverbs. To support our explanation, the morphological and syntactic properties of adverbs are discussed with typological and language universal point of view. Semantic classification is not included in this article because we think it can not be made rigorously without delimiting and analyzing possible various forms of adverbs(and adverbials) and their syntactic functions.
Imaging work has begun to elucidate the spatial organization of emotions; the temporal organization, however, remains unclear. Adaptive behavior relies on rapid monitoring of potentially salient cues (typically with high emotional value) in the environment. To clarify the timing and speed of emotional processing in the two human brain hemispheres, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded during hemifield presentation of face images. ERPs were separately computed for disliked and liked faces, as individually assessed by postrecording affective ratings. After stimulation of either hemisphere, personal affective judgements of face images significantly modulated ERP responses at early stages, 80-116 ms after right hemisphere and 104-160 ms after left hemisphere stimulation. This is the first electrophysiological evidence for valence-dependent, automatic, i.e. pre-attentive emotional processing in humans.
This paper’ presents a novel methodology of resolving prepositional phrase attachment ambiguities. The approach consists of three phases. First, we rely on a publicly available database to classify a large corpus of prepositional attachments extracted from the Treebank parses. As a by-product, the arguments of every prepositional relation are semantically disambiguated. In the second phase, the thematic interpretation of the prepositional relations provides additional knowledge. The third phase is concerned with learning attachment decisions from word class knowledge and relation type features. The learning technique builds upon some of the most popular current statistical techniques. We have tested this methodology on (1) Wall Street Journal articles, (2) textual definitions of concepts from a dictionary and (3) an ad-hoc corpus of Web documents, used for conceptual indexing and information extraction.