Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
18265 papers
REVIEWS 309 typical of periods of upheaval, when language can be transformed -even if the world cannot. Ryazanova-Clarke defines a new genre: Western-style persuasive advertising, examining the subtleties of pronominal usage, rhetorical questions, imperatives (more regularly used than in the West: Reguljarno mojtegolovu 'Wash your hair regularly'), ellipses (Komplektes"e$ prakticnee'The set is even more practical'), informal and vernacular forms and aphorisms and repetitions. Ryazanova-Clarke concludes that the genre 'has created a new configuration of semantic resources' (p. I32). Krouglov depicts Soviet Russian as a tool designed to maintain power in the Republics, with linguistic norms imposed by the CPSU. By the I970S to the I98os Ukrainian had degenerated into 'the language of the "lower" strata of the population' (p. 38). Now attempts are being made to return to preSoviet times, and neologisms based on native roots are commoner in Ukrainian than in Russian. Lallukka's analysis of the status of Komi-Permiak epitomizes the fate of minority languages in the FSU, with Komi-Permiak relegated to colloquial registers. By the I980s Komi-Permiak had ceased to be a language of school instruction, and many parents favoured Russian as the language of social advance, while a society for the promotion of Komi-Permiak has been less than well supported in the I99os. Nadia Stang-Zhirovova examines the use of French loan-words in the language of Russian immigrants in Francophone Belgium. Most affected is the spoken language of the educated middle and upper class (Ja zvonila im, no u nichrepondeur automatique [for Russian avtootvetcik] 'I rang them but they have an answerphone'). The collection concludes with Ziel's piece on the fundamental question of the relationship between language and society in the writings of Aleskandr Potebnja,to markthe resumptionof the studyof neglected nineteenth-century figures. The proof-readinghas been thorough, with the odd misprint:'Institute'for 'Institut', 'Griefswald' for 'Greifswald' (p. xi), 'adverting' for 'advertising' (P. 131) 'Potenbja' for 'Potebnja' (twice, p. 159). There are occasional problemswith the umlaut('Stzrmer'for 'Sturmer',p. I64). Russianwordsare translatedin some papers. The book, particularly chapters two to nine, represents an illuminating contribution to the currentdebate on languages, more especially Russian, in post-CommunistEurope. Department ofModernLanguages TERENCE WADE University ofStrathclyde Schruba, Manfred. Studien zu denburlesken Dichtungen V.I. Majkovs. Slavistische Veroffentlichungen, 83. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, I997. Viii + I78 pp. Bibliography.Index. DM 78.oo. IN the circle of young writerswho frequented M. M. Kheraskov'shouse in Moscowin the I76os andfromI 770 in St Petersburg, V. I. Maikovstooda 310 SEER, 79, 2, 2001 littleapart.Forone thing he was ten to fifteenyearsolderthan the otherguests and fiveyearsseniorto his host (hewas alreadythirty-threewhen, in 176I, he retiredfromthe armyand settledin Moscow). Secondly, althoughlikemost of them he was a dvorianin, unlike them he had been sketchily educated. His teenage years from 1742 to I747 had been spent not in some establishment for the young nobility in the capital, but on his father'sestate in the Iaroslavl' guberniia, where there was no one qualified to teach him. His ignorance of foreignlanguages,particularlyofFrenchand German,constantlyembarrassed him. Thirdly, his lack of influentialfriendsand relationsmeant that, when in 1747 he joined his regiment, the Semenovskii Guards, he had to serve long years in the ranksand as ajunior officer.However, once out of the army, he quicklyfell into the patternof life customaryfor Russianwritersof the second half of the eighteenth century: a succession of posts in the civil service, involvement with the theatre, collaboration in literaryjournals, and masonic activities. His subsequentlife reflectedits comparativelyunprivilegedbeginnings.For one thing it revealedin him a practicalentrepreneurialstreak,so thatwhen in 1770 a shortageof high-qualitysail-clothcame to light in the Russianfleet, he founded a factory in Moscow to produce it. There were also significant consequences for his literarycareer. A youth spent in the provinces followed by fourteenyearsin the guardsbroughthim into contact with the peasant and lower merchant classes, rural, urban and military. He observed them in the fields, the taverns and the barracks.He listened to their conversation, tales and songs,and absorbedtheirwaysof speech. It wasthisrangeof experiences, unusualfor a young nobleman, which equipped him to become Russia'sfirst poet of the burlesque. Dr Schruba examines Maikov's three burlesque narrative poems: Igrok lombera (The Playerof Ombre),firstpublishedin I 763...
Reviews Dunn, J. A. (ed.). Language andSociety in Post-Communist Europe. Selected Papers from theFifth WorldCongress of Central andEast European Studies,Warsaw, 1995. General editor, Ronald J. Hill. Macmillan, Basingstoke and London and St Martin's Press, New York, I999. xi + I77 pp. Notes. Indexes.?40?00? THEsix chaptersof thisbook byJ. A. Dunn, LudmilaFerm,V. M. Mokienko, Wolf Moskovich, Boris Norman and Lara Ryazanova-Clarke offer original and telling insights into the changing Russian language. The articles of Alexander Krouglov and Seppo Lallukkarecall that languages other than Russianare involvedin change, while those of Stang&-Zhirovova's (on French loan-words)and Wulfhild Ziel's (on the work of Potebnja),while less central to the topic, are interestingand, in Ziel'scase, erudite. Dunn shows how the Russian language has been transformedin the postSoviet period by the disintegration of the Soviet political language and by Westernization, especially in the fields of economics, politics and social activity. The language has been infiltrated,not only by loans and slang, but by archaisms,wordplay and puns, while the principlesof politicalcorrectness are applied in a limited fashion only, as the language has struggledto borrow or createthe terminologyof a Western-typesociety. Ferm considers the development of political metaphor in the post-Soviet period, distinguishingmetaphorsthat have been used in a political sense only post I985 (especially those involving schvatka'skirmish' and probuksovka 'stalling'), metaphors with new referents, and completely new metaphors, manybasedon thehumanorganismanditsdiseases,and(perhapssymbolizing transitionto a new society)on transport. Mokienko detects a democratic spirit of spontaneity in contemporary Russian, in contrast to Soviet purism. Russian has not been alone in experiencing an influxof Americanisms,in fact the internationalizationof the language has been going on for centuries. Present change involves the resurrectionor re-evaluationof obsolete words and phrases,while neologisms have invadedthemassmedia. Linguisticnormsareimperilled,but 'pessimistic forecasts which place the present-day Russian language "on the brink of disaster"have no linguisticfoundation'(p. 82). Moskovich describes the language of nationalistic groupings in Russia, much of it anti-semitic,with calquing from Nazi German (bezzidizm 'absence of Jews') and some survivals from Soviet propaganda (siono-nacisty 'ZionoNazis '). One device isto useHebrew words,anotherinvolvesword-play,while rusaki,rusiciand nasi'our people' are used as stylistically-loadedvariants to russkie and non-Russians are termed cernye 'blacks', nerus''non-Russians' or zapadency (fromWesternUkraine). Norman'spaper on language games in contemporaryRussiandistinguishes a number of categories:unusualword formations(tennisizacija 'tennisization'), metaphors (jascik'box, TV set'), ellipses, and condensed sentences (vockax i v nedoumenii 'in glasses and in bewilderment'). Language play is portrayed as REVIEWS 309 typical of periods of upheaval, when language can be transformed -even if the world cannot. Ryazanova-Clarke defines a new genre: Western-style persuasive advertising, examining the subtleties of pronominal usage, rhetorical questions, imperatives (more regularly used than in the West: Reguljarno mojtegolovu 'Wash your hair regularly'), ellipses (Komplektes"e$ prakticnee'The set is even more practical'), informal and vernacular forms and aphorisms and repetitions. Ryazanova-Clarke concludes that the genre 'has created a new configuration of semantic resources' (p. I32). Krouglov depicts Soviet Russian as a tool designed to maintain power in the Republics, with linguistic norms imposed by the CPSU. By the I970S to the I98os Ukrainian had degenerated into 'the language of the "lower" strata of the population' (p. 38). Now attempts are being made to return to preSoviet times, and neologisms based on native roots are commoner in Ukrainian than in Russian. Lallukka's analysis of the status of Komi-Permiak epitomizes the fate of minority languages in the FSU, with Komi-Permiak relegated to colloquial registers. By the I980s Komi-Permiak had ceased to be a language of school instruction, and many parents favoured Russian as the language of social advance, while a society for the promotion of Komi-Permiak has been less than well supported in the I99os. Nadia Stang-Zhirovova examines the use of French loan-words in the language of Russian immigrants in Francophone Belgium. Most affected is the spoken language of the educated middle and upper class (Ja zvonila im, no u nichrepondeur automatique [for Russian avtootvetcik] 'I rang them but they have an answerphone'). The collection concludes with Ziel's piece on the fundamental question of the relationship between language...
Slang, as a social dialect, is a component of the language of anation. Language is a mirror of the social development and the importantmedium of culture. Slang, being a peculiar linguistic phenomenon, reflectedand is still reflecting dynamically the Russian society and culture. Slangexpressions, though not in conformity with the linguistic norms, do exist inoral Russian with peculiar linguistic features. Compared with standardRussian, slang expressions are coarse in rhetoric, but they stay in thesociety, the language and the culture, full of life.
We study the impact of richer syntactic dependencies on the performance of the structured language model (SLM) along three dimensions: parsing accuracy (LP/LR), perplexity (PPL) and word-error-rate (WER, N-best re-scoring). We show that our models achieve an improvement in LP/LR, PPL and/or WER over the reported baseline results using the SLM on the UPenn Treebank and Wall Street Journal (WSJ) corpora, respectively. Analysis of parsing performance shows correlation between the quality of the parser (as measured by precision/recall) and the language model performance (PPL and WER). A remarkable fact is that the enriched SLM outperforms the baseline 3-gram model in terms of WER by 10% when used in isolation as a second pass (N-best re-scoring) language model.
Hemispheric Effects of Concreteness in Pictures and Words Daniel J. Casasanto 1 (dcasasan@mail.med.upenn.edu) John Kounios 2 (jkounios@cattell.psych.upenn.edu) John A. Detre 1 (detre@mail.med.upenn.edu) Department of Neurology 1 and Psychology 2, University of Pennsylvania 3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA Introduction Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies have demonstrated differently lateralized activation during episodic memory encoding for verbal and pictorial stimuli, as predicted by the material-specific model (1). Results are interpreted as consistent with Dual Coding Theory, which posits parallel verbal and imaginal systems by which a given stimulus may be represented (2), the neural substrates of which have also been shown to be differently lateralized (3). Whereas previous encoding studies have examined variation across material types, the present study investigated hemispheric effects within material types. FMRI was used to determine the laterality of encoding-related activation for verbal stimuli that varied in concreteness, and for pictorial stimuli that varied in verbalizability. Methods Task Design Verbal task. Nine healthy, right-handed native English speakers viewed blocks of serially presented English nouns, alternating with blocks of control strings (2500ms presentation, 500ms ITI). Noun stimuli comprised two sublists: 40 concrete and 40 abstract nouns (mean concreteness ratings 6.31 and 2.61, respectively, on a 1-to-7 point scale (Toglia & Battig, 1978)). Each task block comprised ten nouns: eight from one sublist and two from the other. Subjects classified nouns as concrete or abstract, responding via a left-or-right button press. Control blocks comprised ten strings of Ls or Rs, eliciting the same proportion of left and right button presses as the preceding block of nouns. Subjects were instructed to remember noun stimuli for a post-scan forced-choice recognition memory test. Pictorial task. For each of two face memory encoding tasks, eleven healthy, right-handed volunteers viewed blocks of unfamiliar face photographs, alternating with blocks of a repeatedly presented pixelated control image (six 40s task/control blocks, 10 stimuli per block, 3500ms presentation, 500ms ITI). For the first task, full-head photographs were shown, including hair, neck, and upper shoulders. In some cases, clothing and jewelry were visible. For the second task, the same set of face photographs was used, but each photograph was cropped so as to include the brow, eyes, nose, and mouth, but exclude ears, hair, and any extraneous objects. Subjects were instructed to remember the faces for a post-scan recognition test, and to attend the control images but not to memorize them. Scanning occurred during the encoding tasks but not during recognition testing. Image Acquisition and Data Analysis BOLD functional images were obtained at 1.5Tesla in 20 contiguous 5-mm-thick axial slices. Multisubject SPMs were constructed in Talairach space using the SPM99{t} random effects model. Cognitive subtraction revealed activation associated with encoding during blocks of predominantly concrete and predominantly abstract nouns, and during cropped-face and full-head encoding. For each task, activation exceeding a statistical threshold (∝=.05) was quantified in two a priori-defined regions of interest. ROIs comprised the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and fusiform gyri (FG), as these structures have demonstrated reliable material- specific effects in previous encoding studies. Hemispheric asymmetry of activation in each ROI was assessed using an asymmetry ratio [AR = (VoxelsR– VoxelsL)/(VoxelsR+VoxelsL)]. Results and Discussion Differing hemispheric effects shown previously across verbal and pictorial material types were demonstrated in the present study within material types. Average activation in the ROIs was bilateral during encoding of concrete nouns [AR(IFG)=-.06, ns; AR(FG)=.13, ns], which are amenable to both verbal an imaginal coding, but significantly left-lateralized during encoding of abstract nouns [AR(IFG)=-.22, P=.001; AR(FG)=-.80, P=.009], which are resistant to imaginal coding. Activation during encoding of full-head photographs was left-lateralized in the IFG [AR(IFG)=-.46, P=.001] and bilateral in the FG [AR(FG)=-.25, ns], but activation during encoding of cropped-faces, which are resistant to verbal coding, was significantly right- lateralized in both ROIs [AR(IFG)=.12, P=.001; AR(FG)=.71, P=.001]. Replication of these findings within verbal stimuli that vary in imageability and within pictorial stimuli that vary in verbalizability would suggest that hemispheric specialization during memory encoding heretofore described as material- specific might be more accurately described as code- specific. References Casasanto, D.J., et al. (2000) in Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Society 22, 77-82. Paivio, A. (1991) Canadian Journal of Psychology 45, Kounios, J. & Holcomb, P.J. (1994) J. Exp. Psych.: Learning, Memory, & Cognition 20, 804-823.
This study aims to understand the meaning and function of degree adverbs. There has been no reasonable basis to set up the list of degree adverbs. It means that there is a lack of understanding the meaning and function of these categories. Degree adverbs must be used as a term that indicates adverbs with the semantic feature ‘degree’: It is intra-lexical distinctive, multivalent, and a kind of relative concept. It necessarily accompanies ‘norms of judgment’ and also grade ‘degree scales’. The degree adverbs that this paper has treated such as maeu, mucheok, gajang, etc. do not have ‘degree’. Therefore, these are not appropriate to have the name like degree adverbs. We need to use more appropriate degree adverbs than the existing terms and it depends on their meanings and functions.
No AccessAmerican Journal of Speech-Language PathologyClinical Consult1 Nov 2001The Use of MLU for Identifying Language Impairment in Preschool ChildrenA Review Sarita L. Eisenberg, Tara McGovern Fersko, and Cheryl Lundgren Sarita L. Eisenberg Corresponding author: E-mail: E-mail Address: [email protected] Montclair State University, Upper Montclair, NJ Google Scholar More articles by this author, Tara McGovern Fersko Steppingstone Day School, New York, NY Google Scholar More articles by this author and Cheryl Lundgren Eliot Hospital, Manchester, NH Google Scholar More articles by this author https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2001/028) SectionsAboutFull TextPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In References American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (1985). Standards for educational and psychological testing. 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Bruce TomblinLanguage, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools42:4 (536-549)1 Oct 2011Classification of Measures of Language Development in Barbara L. and S. on and Aug in Young Children With A W. E. and M. Journal of Speech-Language Aug of Measures of Language and Language Ability on in A. and of Speech, Language, and Hearing Apr Length of Utterance Levels in for Children to With and Without Language L. Rice, and Megan Speech, and Hearing Services in Apr Application of the Mean and R. on Language Learning and Clinical Utility of Language on Communication Disorders and in and the of in Language in Use of and Language L. of Speech, Language, and Hearing Feb Complexity Conversation of With Fragile X and R. E. Elizabeth A. Mary C. L. and John Journal of Speech-Language May in S. and W. of Speech, Language, and Hearing Aug Length of Utterance in Children With Language Impairment and in Children Validity and and L. Rice, M. and on Dec R. and Steven J. of Speech, Language, and Hearing Dec Length and Lexical Diversity in Children With and Without Language Klee, F. and J. of Speech, Language, and Hearing Oct of the in and M. Journal of Speech-Language Feb and Task and J. to Aug 18, in Nov 1, length of & American Speech-Language-Hearing
The Gsearch system allows the selection of sentences by syntacticcriteria from text corpora, even when these corpora contain no priorsyntactic markup. This is achieved by means of a fast chart parser,which takes as input a grammar and a search expression specified by theuser. Gsearch features a modular architecture that can be extendedstraightforwardly to give access to new corpora. The Gsearcharchitecture also allows interfacing with external linguistic resources(such as taggers and lexical databases). Gsearch can be used withgraphical tools for visualizing the results of a query.
In this paper, some electronically gathered data arepresented and analyzed about the presence of the pastin newspaper texts. In ten large text corpora of sixdifferent languages, all dates in the form of yearsbetween 1930 and 1990 were counted. For six of thesecorpora this was done for all the years between 1200and 1993. Depicting these frequencies on the timeline,we find an underlying regularly declining curve,deviations at regular places and culturally determinedpeaks at irregular points. These three phenomena areanalyzed.
The present study explored psychological predictors of response to a series of three 25 second inhalations of 20% carbon dioxide-enriched air in 60 nonclinical participants. Multiple regression analyses indicated that only anxiety sensitivity physical concerns predicted self-reported fear, whereas both physical anxiety sensitivity concerns and behavioural inhibition sensitivity independently predicted affective ratings of emotional arousal. In contrast, the psychological concerns anxiety sensitivity dimension predicted ratings of emotional displeasure (valence), and both psychological anxiety sensitivity concerns and behavioural inhibition sensitivity independently predicted emotional dyscontrol. No variables significantly predicted heart rate. These data are in accord with current models of emotional reactivity that highlight the role of cognitive variables in the production of anxious and fearful responding to somatic perturbation, and help further clarify the particular predictors of anxiety-related responding to biological challenge.
A C onnectionist M odel of Sem antic M em ory: Superordinate structure w ithout hierarchies G eorge S. C ree (gcree@ uw o.ca) D epartm ent of Psychology, 1151 Richm ond Street London, O ntario N 6A 5B8 Canada K en M cR ae (kenm @ uw o.ca) D epartm ent of Psychology, 1151 Richm ond Street London, O ntario, N 6A 5B8 Canada Sym bolic, spreading-activation m odels of sem antic m em ory represent subset-superset relationships am ong concepts as distinct, hierarchical levels of nodes connected by “isa” links (e.g., Q uillian, 1968). N um erous theoretical and em pirical argum ents have been leveled against this approach (e.g., D ean & Slom an, 1995; Rum elhart & Todd, 1993), including (1) the difficulty such m odels have in accounting for fam iliarity and typicality effects, (2) that category m em bership is often unclear, (3) that item s can belong to m ultiple categories, (4) that som e categories are m ore internally coherent than others, (5) that general properties do not necessarily take longer to verify than specific properties, and (6) that som e general category m em bership relations can be verified faster than specific category m em bership relations. W e present a novel connectionist m odel of sem antic m em ory that offers potential solutions to these problem s. The m odel, an extension of M cRae, de Sa & Seidenberg's (1997) and Cree, M cRae & M cN organ's (1999) m odels of sem antic m em ory, w as trained to com pute distributed patterns of sem antic features from w ord form s. Sem antic feature production norm s w ere used to derive basic-level representations and category m em bership for 181 concepts taken from M cRae et al’s (1997) property norm s. Basic-level (e.g., dog) and superordinate-level (e.g., anim al) concepts w ere represented over the sam e set of sem antic features. The training schem e w as designed to m im ic the fact that people som etim es refer to an exem plar w ith its basic-level label, and som etim es w ith its superordinate- level label. Tw o types of training trials w ere used. In 90% of the training trials, basic-level w ord form s m apped to their sem antic representation, instantiating a one-to-one m apping. The occurrence of each of the 181 basic-level exem plars during training w as scaled by fam iliarity ratings that w ere collected from hum an participants. In the rem aining 10% of the trials, a superordinate w ord form w as trained by pairing it w ith one of its exem plars’ sem antic representations. Im portantly, each sem antic representation included in a category w as paired w ith that superordinate w ord form w ith equal frequency (i.e., typicality w as not built in). The m odel w as used to sim ulate data from typicality, superordinate-exem plar prim ing, and category- verification experim ents. In explaining the hum an data, em phasis w as placed on the role of correlations am ong features, the fam iliarity of concepts, category size, and on the distinction betw een off-line and on-line processing dynam ics. Specifically, settled attractor states for superordinate-level concepts are com posed of a greater num ber of units w ith states on the linear com ponent of the sigm oidal activation function, m aking it easier, for exam ple, for the netw ork to m ove from a superordinate representation to any other during tem poral, on-line processing. A cknow ledgm ents This w ork w as supported by an N SERC Postgraduate Fellow ship to the first author and N SERC grant RG PIN 155704 to the second author. R eferences Cree, G.S., M cRae, K. & M cN organ, C. (1999). A n attractor m odel of lexical conceptual processing: Sim ulating sem antic prim ing. Cognitive Science, D ean, W. & Slom an, S.A. (1995). A connectionist m odel of sem antic m em ory. U npublished M anuscript. M cRae, K., de Sa, V.R. & Seidenberg, M.S. (1997). O n the nature and scope of featural representations of w ord m eaning. Journal of Experim ental Psychology: G eneral, 126, 99-130. Q uillian, M.R. (1968). Sem antic M em ory. In M. M insky [Ed.], Sem antic Inform ation Processing (pp. 216-270). Cam bridge, M A: M IT Press. Rum elhart, D.E. & Todd, P.M. (1993). Learning and connectionist representations. In D.E. M eyer and S. K ornblum [Eds.], Attention and Perform ance XIV: Synergies in experim ental psychology, artificial intelligence, and cognitive neuroscience (pp. 3-30). Cam bridge, M A: M IT Press.
The following three papers have been originally read at a panel «Buddhist (Hybrid) Sanskrit» organized in the framework of the XIIth Conference of the International Association of Buddhist Studies held in Lausanne (Switzerland) on August 24, 1999. The purpose of the panel was, as formulated in the call for papers, first, to reassess the seminal work of Franklin Edgerton which is mainly known as his monumental Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary to which a series of his articles dealing with this language (labeled hereafter «Buddhist Sanskrit») are to be usefully added. The reassessment has been and still is deemed possible indeed on the basis of new analysis of the texts in Buddhist Sanskrit known to Edgerton as well of the texts discovered and published after Edgerton’s work has been completed. The second purpose was to reconsider the problem of the internal structural cohesion of the Buddhist linguistic tradition involving a thorough analysis of grammatical and lexical evidence in Buddhist Sanskrit texts. The three scholars who responded to the call and whose papers have been prepared for the present publication base their research on different data and use understandingly different approaches, but I like to stress that all are aware of the complex nature of the linguistic and literary phenomena they examine. Interestingly, two of them, S. Karashima and K. Lang, share unpremeditatingly, needless to say, several presuppositions which seem to me as fertile as promising for further research. The main point common to these two authors is that beyond the general bewildering picture of Buddhist data, commonly considered as escaping any attempt to uncover an underlying linguistic structure and norm, the authors still see at least regular phenomena following a technique which cannot be due to a haphazard use of the language material and forms. The position of R. Salomon is different as different as his evidence, as will be seen from his article.
This paper is concerned with the investigation of the relevance and suitability of the data mining approach to serial documents. Conceptually the paper is divided into three parts. The first part presents the salient features of data mining and its symbiotic relationship to data warehousing. In the second part of the paper, historical serial documents are introduced, and the Ottoman Tax Registers (Defters) are taken as a case study. Their conformance to the data mining approach is established in terms of structure, analysis and results. A high-level conceptual model for the Defters is also presented. The final part concludes with a brief consideration of the implication of data mining for historical research.
Several Web animation methods were independently assessed on fast and slow systems running two popular Web browsers under MacOS and Windows. The methods assessed included those requiring programming (Authorware, Java, Javascript/Jscript), browser extensions (Flash and Authorware), or neither (animated GIF). The number of raster scans that an image in an animation was presented for was counted. This was used as an estimate of the minimum presentation time for the image when the software was set to update the animation as quickly as possible. In a second condition, the image was set to be displayed for 100 msec, and differences between observed and expected presentations were used to assess accuracy. In general, all the methods except Java deteriorated as a function of the speed of the computer system, with the poorest temporal resolutions and greatest variability occurring on slower systems. For some animation methods, poor performance was dependent on browser, operating system, system speed, or combinations of these.
This paper reports on the design of a lexical database for English which is currently under construction ("FrameNet-2 "), and describes the kinds of linguistic facts that the database is intended to make available, for both human and computer consumers. Building on a recently completed pilot study ("FrameNet-1 "), it is centered on the nature of the relation between lexical meanings and the conceptual structures which underlie them (semantic frames). The database will show the semantic and syntactic combinatorial possibilities (based on frame membership) of the lexical items it includes, as these are documented through grammatical and semantic annotations of sentences extracted from a large corpus of contemporary written English. The notions of pro-filing within a frame, frame inheritance including multiple inheritance, frame blending, and frame composition will be explained and illustrated, and the manner of storing information about them in the database will be outlined. The building of the database, with its necessary labor-intensive manual component, will be explained. 1
Se presentan los valores normativos de la adapta The norms of the Spanish adaptation for shows 9 ci6n espanola de los conjuntos 9-14 (segunda parte) del 14 (second part) of the International Affective Picture Intemational Affective Picture System (lAPS). Los resul System (lAPS) are presented. The results are highly tados muestran una alta consistencia con los obtenidos consistent with those obtained in the first part of the en la primera parte de la adaptaci6n espanola y con los Spanish adaptation and in the original USA version. The valores originales norteamericanos. La distrlbuclon de picture distribution in the bi-dimensional space, defined las diapositivas en el espacio bidimensional valencia by the ratings of valence and arousal, displays the typical arousal adopta la tipica forma de boomerang, obssrvan boomerang form. In addition, a more pronounced slope dose una menor inclinaci6n, junto con una mayor disper -and a smaller dispersion- is observed in the si6n, en el brazo que se extiende hacia el polo agrada unpleasantextreme of the boomerang than in the pleasant ble que en el brazo que se extiende hacia el polo des one. The correlations between the Noth-American and agradable. Las correlaciones entre las evaluaciones the Spanish values are all highly significant. Nevertheless, norteamericanas y espanolas son todas altamente sig the differences found in the first part of the study are nificativas. No obstante, se confirman las diferencias confirmed: Spanish people perceive the affective pictures, encontradas en la primera parte del trabajo, en el sen as a whole, as more arousing and less dominant than tido de que los aspafioles perciben las imagenes North-Americans. Similarly, our results confirm the gender afectivas, en su conjunto, con mayor nivel de activaci6n differences previously found: women rate the pictures y menor nivel de control que los norteamericanos. Asi as more arousing and less dominant than men. Although mismo, sa confirman las diferencias de genero encon no significant differences are observed in valence ratings, tradas anteriormente: las mujeres otorgan a las image as a whole, the pictures evaluated as more pleasant are nes un mayor nivel de acnvaclon y un nivel menor de clearly different for men and women. The implications of control que los varones. Aunque no exlsten diferenclas the results regarding the theoretical model underlying the significativas en las estimaciones globales de la valencia lAPS are highlighted. afectiva, las imagenes evaluadas como mas agradables por varones y mujeres son claramente diferentes. Las Key words: emotion, affective valence, arousal, implicaciones de los resultados con respecto al modelo dominance, cross-cultural differences, gender te6rico que subyace al lAPS son resaltadas. differences.
The paper describes work on a linguistic database of grammatical sentences of the Croatian language. In databases, sentences are shown as constituent structure trees, and words are shown with features and their values. The main project which is concerned with language databases is the Penn Treebank project of the Linguistic Data Consortium (A. Bias et al., 1995). The database is a result of theoretical research in the field of computational linguistics and its application in the Croatian language. The database of grammatical sentences of the Croatian language can also be accessed through the Internet.
In this paper a number of issues relating to theapplication of string processing techniques on musicalsequences are discussed. A brief survey of somemusical string processing algorithms is given and someissues of melodic representation, abstraction,segmentation and categorisation are presented. Thispaper is not intended to provide solutions tostring processing problems but rather tohighlight possible stumbling-block areas andraise awareness of primarily music‐elatedparticularities that can cause problems in matchingapplications.
This study presents normative data for the Speed and Capacity of Language Processing (SCOLP) testfrom an older American sample. The SCOLP comprises 2 subtests: Spot-the-Word, a lexical decision task, providing an estimate of premorbid intelligence, and Speed of Comprehension, providing a measure of information processing speed. Slowed performance may resultfrom normal aging, brain damage (e.g., head injury), or dementing disorders or may represent the intact performance of someone who always performed at the low end of normal. The SCOLP enables the clinician to differentiate between these possibilities. Adequate age-appropriate norms to differentiate dementia from normal aging do not exist. We present data from 424 older community-dwelling Americans (75-94 years old). The results confirm that information processing speed slows with increasing age. By contrast, increasing age has little effect on lexical decision. Thus, our data suggest that the SCOLP shows promise as a tool to help distinguish between normal aging and the early stages of dementia.
This article discusses the implications that new grammatical and lexical features of Black South African English have for language assessment. It is argued that any decisions on assessment must be based on empirical evidence of the stability of such features. Tentative evidence is provided in the article. It seems as if a Standard BSAE is in development, and that language assessment will have to take this into account, although the need for language maintenance and a norm in language assessment remain essential.
This document describes the Part-of-Speech (POS) tagging guidelines for the Penn Korean Treebank Project. The corpus used for this project consists of around 54,000 words and 5,000 sentences. This document starts with a summary of the tagset used in the Penn Korean Treebank, followed by a more detailed discussion of each tag with examples. Then pairs of tags that are easily confused with each other are discussed and guidelines on how to distinguish one from the other for a given base forms and inflections are presented. The document concludes with a list of specific problematic examples with guidelines on how to handle such cases.
Information access methods must be improved to overcome the information overload that most professionals face nowadays. Text classification tasks, like Text Categorization, help the users to access to the great amount of text they find in the Internet and their organizations. TC is the classification of documents into a predefined set of categories. Most approaches to automatic TC are based on the utilization of a training collection, which is a set of manually classified documents. Other linguistic resources that are emerging, like lexical databases, can also be used for classification tasks. This article describes an approach to TC based on the integration of a training collection (Reuters-21578) and a lexical database (WordNet 1.6) as knowledge sources. Lexical databases accumulate information on the lexical items of one or several languages. This information must be filtered in order to make an effective use of it in our model of TC. This filtering process is a Word Sense Disambig)
The Gsearch system allows the selection of sentences by syntactic criteria from text corpora, even when these corpora contain no prior syntactic markup. This is achieved by means of a fast chart parser, which takes as input a grammar and a search expression specified by the user. Gsearch features a modular architecture that can be extended straightforwardly to give access to new corpora. The Gsearch architecture also allows interfacing with external linguistic resources (such as taggers and lexical databases). Gsearch can be used with graphical tools for visualizing the results of a query.
An algorithm for analyzing difference scaling results is described. Frequency data on ordered categories that represent perceived differences for a unidimensional psychological attribute are modeled according to Thurstone’s judgment scaling model. The algorithm applies the gradient method for the maximum likelihood estimation of the model parameters. Two ways to calculate the start configuration for the model parameters are elaborated. The algorithm also provides asymptotic values for the standard errors of the estimates and three measures for the goodness of the model fit. An additional feature of DifScal is that it is suited to analyze incomplete data.
In this paper, we propose a statistical method to automaticallyextract collocations from Korean POS-tagged corpus. Since a large portion of language is represented by collocation patterns, the collocational knowledge provides a valuable resource for NLP applications. One difficulty of collocation extraction is that Korean has a partially free word order, which also appears in collocations. In this work, we exploit four statistics, ‘frequency’,‘randomness’, ‘convergence’, and ‘correlation' in order to take into account the flexible word order of Korean collocations. We separate meaningful bigrams using an evaluation function based on the four statistics and extend the bigrams to n-gram collocations using a fuzzy relation. Experiments show that this method works well for Korean collocations.
The aim of this paper is to describe a technique for identifying the sourcesof several types of syntactic ambiguity in Arabic Sentences with a singleparse only. Normally, any sentence with two or more structuralrepresentations is said to be syntactically ambiguous. However, Arabicsentences with only one structural representation may be ambiguous. Ourtechnique for identifying Syntactic Ambiguity in Single-Parse ArabicSentences (SASPAS) analyzes each sentence and verifies the conditionsthat govern the existence of certain types of syntactic ambiguities in Arabicsentences. SASPAS is integrated with the syntactic parser, which is basedon Definite Clause Grammar (DCG) formalism. The system accepts Arabicsentences in their original script.
Intercorrelations among stylistic and emotional variables and constructvalidity deduced from relationships to other ratings of U.S. presidentssuggest that power language (language that is linguistically simple,emotionally evocative, highly imaged, and rich in references to Americanvalues) is an important descriptor of inaugural addresses. Attempts topredict the use of power language in inaugural addresses from variablesrepresenting the times (year, media, economic factors) and the man(presidential personality) lead to the conclusion that time-basedfactors are the best predictors of the use of such language (81%prediction of variance in the criterion) while presidential personalityadds at most a small amount of prediction to the model. Changes in powerlanguage are discussed as the outcome of a tendency to opt for breadthof communication over depth.
Editors’ introduction Like Darnton in this volume, Coulthard is interested in the practical uses that can be made of the phenomenon of repetition in text. His concern is with textual plagiarism, which he describes as involving texts in a Matching relation that is intended to remain undetected. This is more than simply a witty choice of phrasing: as noted for example in our Introduction, Matching relations rely on repetition, and, in many cases, plagiarists repeat not only the ideas but the wordings of the texts that they plagiarise. Identifying lexical repetition between texts is thus a practical step towards identifying possible cases of plagiarism. Coulthard explores plagiarism in three different areas: literary texts, student essays, and police records of interviews with and statements by suspects. He deals with two major issues: detection and directionality. Detection of plagiarism or unauthorised collaboration between writers can be difficult when, for example, a teacher is faced with large numbers of essays to mark — and even more so when the marking may be shared out amongst different teachers. This is where the occurrence of repetition of lexical items can be exploited. Whereas for Darnton’s purposes what is important is repetition in context (essentially, the repetition — with some changes — of whole sentences rather than of individual words), Coulthard shows that for his purposes measuring the percentage of vocabulary items shared by any two texts is sufficiently revealing. This has the advantage that it can be calculated automatically by computer. When a particularly high level of sharing is noted, the texts can be pulled out and subjected to individual scrutiny to confirm whether plagiarism is indeed involved. Once plagiarism is identified, the issue of directionality may arise: that is, determining which is the original text and which is the plagiarised one. With published texts this is normally a simple matter, since the chronology can be decided by date of publication; but with student essays and police records the analyst will typically need to rely on evidence in the texts themselves. Coulthard discusses various methods by which directionality can be established. At this point, his focus switches from repetition between the texts to cohesion — repetition and conjunction — within each text: that is, to the ways in which the texts are organised and the organisation is signalled. He demonstrates that his approach can be used to illuminate the process by which a supposedly independent text has in fact been derived from another — a process which may have extremely serious implications in legal cases. Underlying any discussion of plagiarism is the question of ‘voices’: how far is it possible to identify a writer’s personal voice, or style, and to detect places where that voice is overlaid or replaced by the voice of another? Coulthard argues that one way of approaching this question is through repetition — that texts (and the body of texts produced by each writer) have their own norms in terms of the language choices that the writers make. This raises an interesting comparison with Scott’s paper in this volume: the two papers can be seen as complementary in certain respects. If Scott deals with the ‘aboutness’ of texts and highlights what texts have in common despite their diversity, Coulthard’s study might be characterised as dealing with the ‘who-ness’ of texts and highlighting essentially what makes texts distinctive despite their similarities.
The form and content of the lexical database of Auslan (Australian Sign Language) is described and explained. The type of database utilized and its precise structure (relational or flat, the type and number of fields, the design of the data entry interface, etc.) is first described. This is followed by a detailed description of the types of information registered in the database: phonological, definitional, bilingual (English-based glossing), grammatical, and semantic. The non-gloss based representations of each sign record (graphic, video, and transcription) that are used in the lexical database are then discussed. Finally, the compatibility of the Auslan lexical database with other lexical databases is examined. The paper concludes with a discussion of the possibility of building an extensive “universal” database of signs that could centralize lexical information from scores of signed languages and facilitate cross-linguistic investigations of lexis and phonology.
Considering the difficulties inherent in the manual construction of natural language parsers, we have designed and implemented our system GRIND which is capable of learning a sequence of context-dependent parsing actions from an arbitrary corpus containing labelled parse trees. Being trained and tested on corpus SUSANNE, GRIND reaches the accuracy of 96 % and the recall of 68 %.
Cross-language information retrieval (CLIR), where queriesand documents are in different languages, has of late become one ofthe major topics within the information retrieval community. Thispaper proposes a Japanese/English CLIR system, where we combine aquery translation and retrieval modules. We currently target theretrieval of technical documents, and therefore the performance of oursystem is highly dependent on the quality of the translation oftechnical terms. However, the technical term translation is stillproblematic in that technical terms are often compound words, and thusnew terms are progressively created by combining existing basewords. In addition, Japanese often represents loanwords based on itsspecial phonogram. Consequently, existing dictionaries find itdifficult to achieve sufficient coverage. To counter the firstproblem, we produce a Japanese/English dictionary for base words, andtranslate compound words on a word-by-word basis. We also use aprobabilistic method to resolve translation ambiguity. For the secondproblem, we use a transliteration method, which corresponds wordsunlisted in the base word dictionary to their phonetic equivalents inthe target language. We evaluate our system using a test collectionfor CLIR, and show that both the compound word translation andtransliteration methods improve the system performance.
Grammars are valuable resources for natural language processing. We divide the process of grammar development into three tasks: selecting a formalism, defining the prototypes, and building a grammar for a particular human language. After a brief discussion about the first two tasks, we focus on the third task. Traditionally, grammars are built by hand and there are many problems with this approach. To address these problems, we built two systems that automatically generate grammars. The first system (LexOrg) solves two major problems in grammar development: namely, the redundancy caused by the reuse of structures in a grammar and the lack of explicit generalizations over the structures in a grammar. LexOrg takes several types of specification as input and combines them to automatically generate a grammar. The second system (LexTract) extracts Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammars (LTAGs) and Context-free Grammars (CFGs) from Treebanks, and builds derivation trees that can be used to train statistical LTAG parsers directly. In addition to creating Treebank grammars and producing training materials for parsers, LeXTract is also used to evaluate the coverage of existing hand-crafted grammars, to compare grammars for different languages, to detect annotation errors in Treebanks, and to test certain linguistic hypotheses. LexOrg and LeXTract provide two different perspectives on grammars. In LexOrg, elementary trees in an LTAG grammar are the result of combining language specifications such as tree descriptions. In LeXTract, elementary trees are building blocks of syntactic structures in a Treebank. LexOrg makes explicit the language specifications that form elementary trees, whereas LeXTract makes explicit the elementary trees that form syntactic structures. The systems provide a rich set of tools for language description and comparison that greatly enhances our ability to build and maintain grammars and Treebanks effectively.
In this paper, we propose adding long-term grammatical information in a Whole Sentence Maximun Entropy Language Model (WSME) in order to improve the performance of the model. The grammatical information was added to the WSME model as features and were obtained from a Stochastic Context-Free grammar. Finally, experiments using a part of the Penn Treebank corpus were carried out and significant improvements were acheived.
In this paper a new similarity-based learning algorithm, inspired by string edit-distance (Wagner and Fischer, 1974), is applied to the problem of bootstrapping structure from scratch. The algorithm takes a corpus of unannotated sentences as input and returns a corpus of bracketed sentences. The method works on pairs of unstructured sentences or sentences partially bracketed by the algorithm that have one or more words in common. It finds parts of sentences that are interchangeable (i.e. the parts of the sentences that are different in both sentences). These parts are taken as possible constituents of the same type. While this corresponds to the basic bootstrapping step of the algorithm, further structure may be learned from comparison with other (similar) sentences. We used this method for bootstrapping structure from the flat sentences of the Penn Treebank ATIS corpus, and compared the resulting structured sentences to the structured sentences in the ATIS corpus. Similarly, the algorithm was tested on the OVIS corpus. We obtained 86.04 % non-crossing brackets precision on the ATIS corpus and 89.39 % non-crossing brackets precision on the OVIS corpus.
CL Research's word-sense disambiguation (WSD) system is part of the DIMAP dictionary software, designed to use any full dictionary as the basis for unsupervised disambiguation. Official SENSEV AL-2 results were generated using WordNet, and separately using the New Oxford Dictionary of English (NODE). The disambiguation functionality exploits whatever information is made available by the lexical database. Special routines examined multiword units and contextual clues (both collocations, definition and example content words, and subject matter analyses); syntactic constraints have not yet been employed. The official coarsegrained precision was 0.367 for the lexical sample task and 0.460 for the all-words task (these are actually recall, with actual precision of 0.390 and 0.506 for the two tasks). NODE definitions were automatically mapped into WordNet, with precision of0.405 and 0.418 on 75 % and 70 % mapping for the lexical sample and all-words tasks, respectively, comparable to WordNet. Bug fixes and implementation of incomplete routines have increased the precision for the lexical sample to 0.429 (with many improvements still likely).
Chunk parsing has focused on the recognition of partial constituent structures at the level of individual chunks. Little attention has been paid to the question of how such partial analyses can be combined into larger structures for complete utterances. Such larger structures are not only desirable for a deeper syntactic analysis. They also constitute a necessary prerequisite for assigning function-argument structure.The present paper offers a similarity-based algorithm for assigning functional labels such as subject, object, head, complement, etc. to complete syntactic structures on the basis of prechunked input.The evaluation of the algorithm has concentrated on measuring the quality of functional labels. It was performed on a German and an English treebank using two different annotation schemes at the level of function-argument structure. The results of 89.73 % correct functional labels for German and 90.40 % for English validate the general approach.
Finding simple non-recursive base noun phrase is an impoortant step for many natural language processing applications this paper presents a new corpus-based approach． In contrast to previous methods for Base NP identification We employ a decision tree to identify Base NP． And a self-learning mechanism is intgrated into our model． Penn Treebank is as the training standard． Experimental results show good performances using our method． The method can also be applied to processing of any other language．
The morphology of inflectional languages poses specific problems in the processing of morphological alternations. Regular alternations at morpheme boundaries can be elegantly captured by the use of rule formalisms based on the two-level morphology model. Stem alternations and completely irregular alternations at morpheme boundaries, however, need to be captured in some way in the lexicon. This paper presents four possible solutions to the problem and makes a claim in favor of one of them. The proposed approach makes use of feature bundles that contain the necessary linguistic information to uniquely identify allomorphic variations of stems in the lexicon. The proposal is an improvement in that it simplifies the representation of allomorphic variations in the lexicon by avoiding duplication of stem allomorphs to capture cross-combination of several morphosyntactic features in stem+flex sequences.
We aim at finding the minimal set of fragments which achieves maximal parse accuracy in Data Oriented Parsing. Experiments with the Penn Wall Street Journal treebank show that counts of almost arbitrary fragments within parse trees are important, leading to improved parse accuracy over previous models tested on this treebank (a precision of 90.8% and a recall of 90.6%). We isolate some dependency relations which previous models neglect but which contribute to higher parse accuracy.
Low interrater reliability coefficients are a common problem for behavior rating scales. One hypothesis to account for this is that raters have different frames of reference from which to judge behaviors. In the present study, the interrater reliability of the Devereux Behavior Rating Scale-School Form was examined, and the hypothesis that teacher frame of reference influences ratings was explored. Special and general education teachers rated the behavior of 51 children with emotional disturbance (ED), and general education teachers inde pendently rated the behavior of 51 matched control children. Interrater reliability coeffi cients were higher for the general education sample than for the sample of children with ED. Limited support was found for the hypoth esis that frame of reference may affect ratings. Findings suggest that many factors influence ratings and that teachers may benefit from rater training.
BalkaNet aims at building a multilingual lexical database consisting of WordNets in several Central and Eastern European languages. Even though it will be built in a similar way with EuroWordNet, new features will be implemented ranging from structuring the Inter-LingualIndex to ensure linking of conceptual equivalencies across WordNets to the development of an inter-networked WordNet Management so that each partner retains full responsibility and independence of his local WordNet whereas at the same time they will be able to view other WordNets and check their compatibility.
This paper describes a simple pattern-matching algorithm for recovering empty nodes and identifying their co-indexed antecedents in phrase structure trees that do not contain this information. The patterns are minimal connected tree fragments containing an empty node and all other nodes co-indexed with it. This paper also proposes an evaluation procedure for empty node recovery procedures which is independent of most of the details of phrase structure, which makes it possible to compare the performance of empty node recovery on parser output with the empty node annotations in a gold-standard corpus. Evaluating the algorithm on the output of Charniak's parser (Charniak, 2000) and the Penn treebank (Marcus et al., 1993) shows that the pattern-matching algorithm does surprisingly well on the most frequently occuring types of empty nodes given its simplicity.
Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies 271 foice us to confronr aspects of out cultural history and identity we as Americans, perhaps Norm Americans, must confront: our rapacity, racism, machoism (sexism) in our dealing with this land and its peoples. They also present us with admirable acrs of choice, as we continue to define ourselves for worse or for bertei against a backdrop rhat threatens void but promises the sublime, climbable peaks of possibility. (212) In light of this statement, the book appeals to be written for the Kit Carsons of today, the multicultural polyglots who might make a fatal mistake (you know the kind). On this didactic point, and on Canfield's evident pleasure in studying Southwestern novels and films, Mavericks on the Border is a well-intended contribution to the revision of U.S. cultural and political history. Roberto Cantú California State University, Los Angeles Variation and Change in Spanish Cambridge University Press, 2000 By Ralph Penny Evet since William Labov's seminal woik on sound changes in progress in Martha's Vineyard (1963), one of the most important contributions of variationist sociolinguistics has been the possibility of detecting linguistic change in progress. The study of variance and its correlation with stylistic and social factors reveals the very source of linguistic change, and allows for an understanding of howpaiticulai innovations spread, shedding light on the mechanisms of both changes in progress and changes that have already been completed. These ideas underlie Penny's Variation and Change in Spanish, whose main merit is the attempt to integrate synchronic and diachronic perspectives into the study of the history of Spanish. In this book, instead of following the tradition of historical manuals that oiganize theii content around abrupt phonological, morphosyntactic and lexical changes across time, Penny emphasizes the vaiiation, both geogiaphical and social, that gave rise to change in Spanish. Undei this approach, the social history of the speakers is highlighted as Penny reconstructs some of the main mechanisms undetlying variation and change that are observable in former philological studies of Spanish. He emphasizes the changes caused by leveling of irregularities and simplification of structures, and argues that these two processes are rhe main forces driving Spanish evolution as a result of dialect contact and mixing due to constant population movement since the Middle Ages. In chapter 1, "Introduction," Penny briefly sets forth the theoretical framework and tetminology derived from historical sociolinguistics. In chapter 2, "Dialect, language, variety: definitions and relationships," the differences between dialect and language are discussed, clarifying common myths about this relationship among nonlinguists. The concepts of diglossia and diasystems ate applied to chaiacterize some of the relationships between the linguistic varieties in the Iberian Peninsula. Here Penny emphasizes the "seamlessness " of social and geographic dialectal continua, and thus regards the tree model, commonly used in historical linguistics, as inadequate due to, among other reasons, its individual branches that mask the continuity of the Peninsular Romance continuum. Chapter 3, "Mechanisms of Change," aims to present the ways in which linguistic innovations travel thtough both geogiaphical and social space. Grounded in the theory that linguistic innovations "ate passed from one individual to anothei through the accommodation processes which occur in face to face conracr" (63), Penny discusses leveling and simplification in late medieval and eatly modem Spanish. According to the authot, leveling explains (1) the reduction of the six medieval Spanish sibilants to three (in central and northern Spain) or two (elsewhere), (2) the variance between the initial IhI realization and dropping, and the final /h/-less solution, and (3) the merger of the voiced labial fricative and stop that initiated in the 15di century and the final IhI 272 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies victoiy. Simplification, a slightly different process, is responsible for (1) the merger of the perfect auxiliaries, (2) the history of strong preterites, and (3) the neai-meigei of the -er and -«-verb classes. After exemplifying cases of hyperdialectalism, reallocation of variants, and waves, Penny turns to the social factors thar govern rhe propagation of linguistic innovations, drawing from Leslie and James Milroys (1985) work on types of social networks. According to die Milroys, diffuse networks (weak ties among sevetal people) fosrer linguistic change...