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16504 papers
This work introduces the exploitation of some language resources, namely word association norms, for building lexical search engines. We used the Edinburgh Associative Thesaurus and the University of South Florida Free Association Norms for the construction of knowledge graphs that will let us execute algorithms over the nodes and edges in order to do a lexical search. The aim of the search is to perform an inverse dictionary search that, given the description of a concept as a query in natural language, will retrieve a target word. We evaluated two graph approaches, namely Betweenness Centrality and PageRank, using a corpus of human-definitions. The results are compared with the BM25 text-retrieval algorithm and also with an online reverse dictionary– OneLook Reverse Dictionary. The experiments show that our lexical search method is competitive with the IR models in our case study, even with a slight outperformance. This demonstrates that an inverse dictionary is possible to build with these kind of resources, no matter the language of the Word Association Norm.
Modern Arabic has a distinction from classical Arabic in terms of lexical, phonological, morphological and syntactic. According to Abbâs al-Sûsah in Muhbib Abdul Wahab, Contemporary Arabic has the following characteristics: 1) accuracy of the use of Arabic at all levels: sound, morphology, syntax, and semantics; 2) more widely used in written language (al-Lughah al maktûbah) than oral language, 3) fluency and diversity-free 'amiyah, 4) standard language that is officially prepared. Based on observations of writers who try to classify modern Arabic vocabulary, the fields of religion, language and literature are the fields with the least development of modern Arabic vocabulary, when compared to economic, political, legal, psychological, health and other vocabularies. This may be due to the fact that from the fields of religion, language and literature there are not many new vocabulary terms, this may be due to religious, linguistic and literary norms.
The field of psychology relies heavily on evidence from North America and Northern Europe. Universally applicable models require input from around the globe. Indigenous lexical studies of personality, which define the most salient person-descriptive concepts and their structure in a population, provide this. Such results are reported from two nonindustrialized communities, representing 2 of the 3 main language families of Africa, in groups with differing cultural characteristics. Maasai participants, traditionally herders in rural Kenya and Tanzania, have a highly structured, traditional culture. Supyire-Senufo participants are traditional horticulturalists in Mali. The 203 most common person-descriptive terms in Maasai were administered to 166 participants, who described 320 persons (166 highly regarded, 154 less so). The optimal emic solution included 5 factors: virtue/moral-character, debilitation/vulnerability, boldness/surgency, hubris/pride, and timidity. In the Maasai context, descriptions of well-regarded individuals were exceptionally uniform, suggesting the role of personality language in norm socialization in tight, traditional cultures. In Supyire, 115 participants used 208 person-descriptive terms to describe 227 targets (half highly regarded). The optimal emic solution included 10 factors: social self-regulation, well-being, vitality/resilience, broadmindedness, diligence versus laziness, madness, stubbornness versus attractiveness, acceptance versus discontent, hurry/worry, and peacefulness. The best convergence between the languages was at the 3-factor level, where factors relate to moral character, low agreeableness coupled with high extraversion, and emotional stability. Beginning with the 4-factor level, content related to local cultural characteristics became apparent. In both languages, 2-factor solutions matched the Big Two, but 3-, 5-, and 6-factor solutions failed to overlap with etic Pan-Cultural Three, Big Five, or Big Six models. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Abstract When bilinguals name pictures while in ‘monolingual mode’, we expect that under conditions of language-constraint and no cognate facilitation, factors influencing lexical retrieval in monolinguals ought to exert similar effects on bilinguals. To this end, we carried out a L1-only naming task on early Hindi–English bilinguals. Results of linear mixed effects analysis reveal AoA, Familiarity, Image Agreement and Codability (availability of alternate names) to be the most significant predictors of lexical retrieval speed for early bilinguals, confirming our expectations. However, we report, for the first time, a by-subject variation in Codability for bilinguals. Implications of the results are discussed in the context of current theories of bilingual lexical access and competition. In preparation for this study, Hindi norms from bilinguals for items in the Snodgrass and Vanderwart set have been established, which will be of use for stimuli selection in experimental studies involving bilinguals.
As “skewed life chances, limited access to health and education, premature death, incarceration, and impoverishment” endure as features of the black ordinary, widespread disillusionment with neoliberal statecraft has empowered white supremacist regimes across the West.1 Though its merits remain contested by many, Afro-pessimism—a theoretical and increasingly interdisciplinary conceptual intervention—indicts humanist scholars’ failure to account for the brutal imaginations that persist into the twenty-first century.2 This assertion of scholars David Marriott, Jared Sexton, Frank B. Wilderson III, and others—that social death is a defining, ontological characteristic of the black—builds on the interventions of Frantz Fanon, Lewis Gordon, Saidiya Hartman, Orlando Patterson, and Hortense Spillers, among others. Younger scholars such as Patrice Douglass and John Murillo III, whose intellectual trajectories have been radically influenced by the proposition that black social death is the metaphysical guarantor of modernity and the subject writ large, have emerged as preeminent innovators in black studies. While Afro-pessimism’s detractors are admittedly diverse in their disagreement, from cultural workers and political economists dismayed by the analytic decentralization of identity and labor to humanists spooked by the suggestion of an irresolvable antagonism, none can deny that what began as a “highly technical dispute in a small corner of the American academy,” per Jared Sexton, continues to problematize assumptions that have bolstered studies of political economics, philosophy, and race since the eighteenth century.3One voice among the growing chorus of activists, artists, organizers, and scholars throughout the black diaspora who insist that modernity depends on the prohibition of black self-possession, unsettling liberal fictions of progress and conservative nostalgia for the past alike, belongs to Christina Sharpe. In her 2016 work In the Wake: On Blackness and Being, Sharpe suggests that black scholars of slavery and its afterlife are expected “to discard, discount, disregard, jettison, abandon, and measure” ways of knowing the world born “from and of the everyday” to produce work that is decidedly expository and legible, no matter what epistemic antiblackness this enacts.4 If one is to journey through the archives of slavery, to actively “sit in the room with history”5 without reproducing the terms of engagement that prohibit black freedom at all costs, she suggests: “We must become undisciplined.”6 The primary aim of the demand Sharpe notes—to forfeit the intimate, psychic, and social worlds of black people in approaching any study of the world—is not legible scholarship or progressive narratives of history, though these are certainly consequences. The most severe effect of this forfeiture is the incapacitation of the black imagination as it disrupts and provokes across time and space, discipline and practice. While forging new methods of researching, witnessing, and writing that understand black death to be “a predictable and constitutive aspect”7 of the United States and take for granted blackness as “the ground of terror’s possibility globally”8 will not resurrect the dead, raze prisons, or alone destroy our “cognitive schema”9 of captivity, the need to cultivate another world, one where suffering and proximity to death are not the (constitutively) sole promises of black life, is as critical as ever. A central question that scholars of black studies like Sharpe find themselves asking is, What constitutes a pedagogy and practice of bearing the baring of black life and death?The most recent evincement of this undisciplined rigor is Saidiya Hartman’s third monograph, Wayward Lives, Beautiful Experiments: Intimate Histories of Social Upheaval. Hartman’s first opus on black life in the twentieth century, Wayward Lives presents a revelatory history of young black women’s attempts to construct and sustain intimate lives in New York and Philadelphia at the beginning of the twentieth century. The text is unprecedented in its attention to the intimate post-Reconstruction worlds young black women created for themselves amid the influx of black people to northern US cities. Hartman argues that these women, in open rebellion against the reconfigured and respectable regime of antiblack terror that characterized the North, yearned to live a life unconstrained by the enduring threat of violence. Hartman shows how black women’s fashioning of something like a free life underneath and against the expanding carceral state at the turn of the century cannot be reduced to pitiful resignation, acquiescent daydreaming, sanguine scheming, or outright rebellion. Their responses to the yoke that marked this historical era of black life—a newfound responsibility for their bodies and reconfigured yet familiar brutality—were new forms of kinship and sociality that satiated their longing and kept alive their desires for a world in excess of the one they had survived.Black women courted dapper hustlers and shapely dancers, raised children alone, retained permanent partners and transient lovers, and lived with friends, admirers, and spendy sponsors. They straddled the corner and one another. They fucked for pleasure, made love for money, and refused to placate the monied and moralist reformers who shamed them to hell for it. The insubordinate envisioning and fleeting actualization of this impossible living is the subject of Hartman’s inventive narration. The text is presented in three parts: book 1, “She Makes an Errant Path through the City”; book 2, “The Sexual Geography of the Black Belt”; and book 3, “Beautiful Experiments.” Each book is subdivided into sections (four in book 2, eight in books 1 and 3) ranging from dialogical imaginings of queer intimacy and sociological extraction in Philadelphia tenements to prosaic demonstrations of antiblackness’s atemporal and material force on the lives of black women in Harlem.“After the slave ship and the plantation, the third revolution of black intimate life unfolded in the city” (wl, 61). Historians have failed to properly recognize the young black women who lived in this era as “sexual modernists, free lovers, radicals, and anarchists” or to “realize that the flapper was a pale imitation of the ghetto girl.” Wayward Lives charts new ground in black studies and studies of twentieth-century US history by illuminating how “the revolutionary ideals that animated [the] ordinary lives” of black women permeated black urban life at the turn of the century (wl, xv). The putrid alley, the stifling tenement hallway, the simple and tidy bedroom, the lush and electric Savoy Ballroom: each geography was a laboratory for their experiments in living as if they were free. Hartman asserts that black women’s refusal to accept asterisked motherhood, civic disenfranchisement, domestic servitude, social scandalization, and the quotidian violence that sustained these projects was part of a larger social transformation that fueled white panic over the incursion of free blacks fleeing the South. These women did not arrive contagious or bloodthirsty; they were desperate to grasp hold of their bodies “emptied of self-interpretation,”10 not to redress slavery’s violence but to address the desires slavery sought to obliterate. Theirs, Hartman writes, “was a struggle without formal declarations of policy, slogan, or credo,” simply “to wander through the streets of Harlem, to want better than what she had, and to be propelled by her whims and desires was to be ungovernable” (wl, 230). While the text is primarily concerned with how intimate desire and the longing-to-be compelled these women to create unorthodox assemblages and lead renegade lives, this third revolution it presents is homonymous: revolution, the forcible overthrow of a government or social order; revolution, the movement of an object in a circular course. Black women arrived to the docks and depots of the North tender and eager to choose a lover and wild and afraid of touch. They arrived stately, demoralized, sober, smiling, alone, crying, pregnant, and patient, with few possessions and fewer plans. They arrived as ungeographic embodiments of “ontological terror.”11 Metaphysically promiscuous. Wayward and ready. “The first generation after slavery had been so in love with being free that few noticed or minded that they had been released to nothing at all,” Hartman writes. “They didn’t yet know that the price of the war was to be exacted from their flesh” (wl, 143).The text’s attention to the lifeworlds black women created for themselves—worlds whose archival traces are generally limited and varyingly contorted, obscured, sublimated, or altogether erased—has been described by Hartman as a “labor of regard.”12 “I have pressed at the limits of the case file and the document, speculated about what might have been, imagined the things whispered in dark bedrooms, and amplified moments of withholding, escape and possibility, moments when the vision and dreams of the wayward seemed possible” (wl, xv). The regard at the heart of this imaginative project is clear from the beginning, as the text opens with a note on method and subsequent “cast of characters,” mostly black women. The names of Mattie Jackson, “a fifteen-year-old newly arrived in New York from Hampton, Virginia,” and Mabel Hampton, “chorine, lesbian, working-class intellectual, and aspiring concert singer,” are recorded alongside those of Ella Baker, Ida B. Wells, W. E. B. Du Bois, and white reformers Mary White Ovington and Helen Parrish (wl, xviii, xxi). Substantial archival research gives way to a discerning third-person limited narration, while Hartman’s cross-textual citation and curation of diary entries and found correspondence produces startlingly authentic and coherent voices, each one its own chorus fat with knowledge wrought by generations of black women artists, historians, organizers, and theoreticians.13“In the slum, everything is in short supply except sensation,” begins the first book, a sweeping survey of black women’s intimate lives and political imagining in New York and Philadelphia during the last two decades of the nineteenth century. This sensorial excess or felt surplus cannot be captured by the journalists that roam the alleyways hoping to steal a glimpse of the dark ghetto. Hartman critiques white reformists’ scopophilic representations of the black urban poor at the turn of the century. The neighborhoods young black women inhabited were imaged as barren waste worlds of concrete and excrement, clotheslines and crowded rooms. “These photographs extended an optic of visibility and surveillance that had its origins in slavery and the administered logic of the plantation” (wl, 21). Another image: a young black girl, no older than six or seven, nude on the couch of realist painter Thomas Eakins. “To do more than recount the violence that deposited these traces in the archive,”14 Hartman reprints the exposed body of the child, annotating over it. “It was not the kind of image I was looking for when I set out to tell the story of the social revolution and transformation of intimate life that unfolded in the black-city-within-the-city” (wl, 17). Rather than pivot away from the terrible meaning of this find, the text keeps vigil with the unnamed girl before the page is turned, the terror in her face a historic artifact, her future a mystery. “Her body was already marked by a history of sexual defilement, already branded as a commodity” (wl, 29).This experiment in “black annotation” begins Hartman’s reimagining.15 The availability of black girls and women to be abused, manipulated, and violated—and the violence that secured it—was not a geographic phenomenon. Intimate life in the black city was not an escape from the terror of the South but a competing vision, an experiment in the unceasing activity of fleeing that which follows you.16 W. E. B. Du Bois makes an appearance, arriving in 1896 to diagnose the body of black urbanity and ease the social malaise arising in Philadelphia before the Seventh Ward became a den of suffering. At the time of his famed research, the Negro quarter “was not yet a zone of racial enclosure characterized by extreme deprivation and regular violence. It was not yet a reserve for the dispossessed and those regulated as fungible, disposable, surplus, and not quite human. The ghetto was not yet a foregone conclusion” (wl, 94). This does not prevent Du Bois from writing off the social rearrangements black women commenced as erroneous depravity attributable to slavery. The pleasure that preempted the next disaster was palpable: a pair of young friends giddily window shopping whom Du Bois eyed on his walk home, a raucous card game tempered by the latest gossip and last night’s hangover. Du Bois’s brief but rich appearance in the first book finds him canvassing and coming up against black women distrustful of his tailored threads and nosy questions. He encounters a woman who asks: “Are we animals to be dissected by an unknown Negro at that?” He records her snub: “unwilling to respond” (wl, 100). The refusal Du Bois discovers in Philadelphia disappoints him, but the real-time reimagining of intimate life—unmarried lovers, breadwinning wives—terrifies him. “Looking at the trail of exhausted women plodding their way home, he feared for the future. The world had released these women to an awful fate. He trembled at the sight of them” (wl, 98).Equally incapable of registering the reckless appetite for another world that propelled black women through the cityscape alive and intent on living was wealthy Quaker reformer Helen Parrish, founder of Philadelphia’s Octavia Hill Association. Parrish struggled to wrangle the young women residing in the housing she had purchased to rent to black people. Hartman brings Parrish (and her antagonistic residents) to life on the page as they unrepentantly maintain numerous lovers and belligerently dismiss her appeals to collect rent. “I what the book “a woman who to Parrish by to be was one but how a black woman be Their refusal to be by one or and heart and the from it. was the with did not what was and in their as if they live or it. insist that no can if a is or no can the matter of (wl, Though white people on black to the and Hartman black women to up (wl, What was when one a that be into the excess of their an vision of what they were the book Hartman how black women living in the of slavery a of sexual violence the of their the life in the The book begins with the love story of and from and has her in Philadelphia and arrived in New York with a by way of “It was their in New so she didn’t yet know what the city it have to something better than or or or the but at a price more (wl, While she for a a white her matter where were was white had to tell to his off were in about the life in the these as if to the they did (wl, the and him to death, is to that the is a them “Her was through the city and up his was the that he had the to them from a white (wl, on the all people in the city have his face for Black are out of and in the Black women are out of their and “The did more than the (wl, out in the one of those with their is with and she in the he to the of Negro to be on (wl, throughout the text shows how the of alone the black and the of black women (wl, they to or the famed and love with the the in Hartman’s by the of an Hartman’s of these experiments the a the struggle to another In the of black women’s intimate lives by Hartman, the were one the of their revolutionary imagination or to the of and impossible While their was an in a so escape an for black women (wl, I the Black to as two generations from the to This be with the of black who the and social of sexual and failed to the of were as and and and and and were the terms to and these of intimacy and (wl, The of New Wayward and work as these lovers, a of a in a failure of an excess of were not in and of but of will and future (wl, to young women the of and were to the of the as to to or the to the or (wl, black girls these of three while women of were to a few at the (wl, On being in a the about her to a as to at the of the New York for in where of the text’s book with the of by hoping to by the housing of the the was to a as any woman who in a of or of any in a tenement or who or her for the of or who any or to a of or a room in a tenement for the of in In the to an was an a to have at all a In “Beautiful Hartman how black women and “the of the that like sought to (wl, of and correspondence a imagining of the that the women of in about the and they its The New York window of the was crowded with Negro women who were and in and on the and set They and and those this and and slavery time was They were of being and they to be (wl, Though this was not it was in that of it the her in Hartman are the of to be by those and about those who live in such an intimate with A to “the practice of to live when were to (wl, Wayward Lives is an imaginative in and The post-Reconstruction and the at generations of black women their bodies in an to live as Sharpe writes, the and of and in the black practice of possibility at a time when all except the created by are the project of at the of life and (wl, Though the text the ways that with it shows how any of black women’s and was on terror (wl, for the to this violence the and is no of Wayward Hartman’s a as if up in the of the for and to on the of black I find this of the where an that is to the text’s and to be the of the Lives is a history from the hold of the ship so that we do not the in the of black women’s to be all they for an of the wayward or an of black women who refused to up in kind will be as the text the of the and the historical of black women, what Jared as a that does not after the which is but it than from this or where is disaster and a of or black to the we The and that from the window Hartman open as a and provokes “a will to and that is so it so it makes with (wl, a of illuminating this prohibition on black freedom Hartman has a chorus that to or the to it.
The article is devoted to the study of the causes of communicative barriers in the process of dialogue at manufacturing. Special attention is given to parcelled statements as they function in an oral text, having a double semantic load and expressing in addition to external substantive contents the author's implied meaning, which is often a priority in the information perspective, eludes the addressee. The relevance of the proposed work is due to the need for a detailed description of this area of business communication (alongside with the expressive syntax) and identify the causes of misunderstanding of the very nature of the designated language phenomenon by recipients entering into speech cooperation.The expediency of the consideration of the parcelling in the designated key is justified by the fact that it, representing a multilevel semantic structure in structural terms, in addition to the visual shell endowed with a deep subtext interpreting the linguistic picture of the social environment, acts in the business style as an auxiliary element serving as a certain universal code for the allocation of the information segment in the speech flow and the strengthening of suggestion. On the other hand, the incorrect division of phrases in the speech flow not only undermines the literary norms, but also can cause communicative difficulties for the negotiators. Consequently, the strategy of conducting business conversations should be carried out taking into account the complex knowledge of psycholinguistics, culture of speech and office work in order to both recognise the parcelled units in the lexical and grammatical complex and take into consideration their structural and semantic features in the production of the text. This, in our opinion, forms a successful personality in terms of communication.
This article investigates the role(s) of the katakana syllabary in Japanese discourse, with a focus on the discourse producer’s underlying motivation for using katakana for native Japanese terms and how it influences word perception. Specifically, this study analyses 1) a corpus of texts to identify patterns in use and 2) a survey of professional writers (e.g., journalists, column writers) to triangulate results obtained from text analysis. Results show that the katakana syllabary is used to indicate the word in question is somehow ‘different’ from the norm, making a visual and mental distinction in the commonly shared word or concept. While each writer’s motivations may widely vary, the findings of this study suggest that in any written discourse, katakana may be employed to conceptualise a dichotomous view in otherwise common concepts. This also suggests that over time the original role of the katakana syllabary has been extended to becoming the linguistic choice of convenience, with roles ranging from filling lexical gaps to creating meaning gaps in Japanese native words.
The article explores the problems of lexical and grammatical and specially legal interpretation of certain criminal procedural norms, in particular, those that regulate the victim's right to procedural communication in criminal proceedings. It is noted that the guiding principle of lawful interpretation is the principle of dialogical communication, where dialogue is understood as a dynamic and constructive way of thinking, creating, interpreting, leading from the analysis of legal and technical errors of legal norms to effective law-making and enforcement and developing in a spiral, because every dialogue must continue the previous ones and prepare the next ones.The notion of a lawful interpretation of a sectoral (criminal-procedural) legal norm is defined asa special independent form of official and informal interpretation, an actual need in which it exists before, during and after the application of the criminal-procedural norm, and is intended to ensure its interpretative evolution for the sake of effective legalization.It is emphasized that the importance and necessity of lexical and grammatical and special-legal interpretation is dictated by: the presence of gaps in sectoral (criminal-procedural) legislation; the existence of conflicts in sectoral (criminal procedural) legislation; availability of valuation concepts in sectoral (criminal procedural) legislation; the presence of issues related to legal and technical errors in sectoral (criminal) law; the presence of problems of the degree of legal regulation of the compositional construction of criminal procedural norms; the presence of issues related to the appeal to the linguistic structural elements of the criminal procedural norm.
36 Feminist Studies 45, no. 1. © 2019 by Feminist Studies, Inc. Sonny Nordmarken Queering Gendering: Trans Epistemologies and the Disruption and Production of Gender Accomplishment Practices Those who are deemed “unreal” nevertheless lay hold of the real, a laying hold that happens in concert, and a vital instability is produced by that performative surprise. —Judith Butler, Gender Trouble Beginning in the 1960s, scholars began to theorize gender as a contextually specific process rather than a universal category reflecting an essential pre-discursive sex. Two interrelated traditions developed: a discursive approach, which theorized gender as performative, and an interactionist approach, which investigated the interactional achievement of gender. For Judith Butler, “what we take to be an internal essence of gender is manufactured through a sustained set of acts, posited through the gendered stylization of the body.”1 Gender is therefore performative: it is a series of effects produced through the repetition and citation of stylized acts, which are named via and thus produced through discourse; discourse also produces the defining limits of subjects.2 Candace West and Don Zimmerman theorized gender as a “routine, methodical, 1. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble, 10th anniversary ed. (New York: Routledge, 1999), xv. 2. Butler, Gender Trouble; Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (New York: Routledge, 1993); Judith Butler, Undoing Gender (New York: Routledge, 2004). Sonny Nordmarken 37 and recurring accomplishment” produced in social interaction.3 They observed how, in the relational process of “doing gender,” social actors display gender, presenting an appearance to others, who attribute gender by interpreting this appearance. In this article, I investigate how actors interactionally challenge and construct discursive structures in order to contribute to scholarship that analyzes the role language plays in such interactions.4 Following Sandy Stone, who suggests that transsexuals are not a class, nor a third gender, but a genre, “a set of embodied texts,” who, through their interpretation, might potentially disrupt dichotomous sexuality and gender categories, I examine the spaces in which the discursive and the interactional merge to investigate how gender minorities, as simultaneous subjects, texts, social actors, and cultural workers, queer hegemonic gender practices.5 I argue that members of trans linguistic communities and gender nonconforming individuals queer the normative gender process in two ways: by productively linguistically communicating third-person gender pronouns and by disruptively inhibiting gender’s hegemonic attribution. Lal Zimman has made parallel observations, explaining linguistic gender self-determination practices as a new cultural phenomenon, focusing on terminology for types of gendered persons, grammatical gender forms (i.e., pronouns), and lexical items that relate to embodied sex.6 My analysis builds on Zimman’s observations using sociological, performance 3. Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman, “Doing Gender,” Gender & Society 1, no. 2 (1987): 126. 4. For example, see Mimi Schippers, “Recovering the Feminine Other: Masculinity, Femininity, and Gender Hegemony,” Theory and Society 36, no. 1 (2007): 85–102. 5. Sandy Stone, “The Empire Strikes Back: A Posttranssexual Manifesto,” in Body Guards: The Cultural Politics of Gender Ambiguity, ed. Julia Epstein and Kristina Straub (New York: Routledge, 1991), 296. The term “gender minorities ” encompasses individuals identifying with gender identity terms other than those they were assigned and individuals with gender nonconforming appearance. 6. See Lal Zimman, “Transgender Language Reform: Some Challenges and Strategies for Promoting Trans-affirming, Gender-Inclusive Language,” Journal of Language and Discrimination 1, no. 1 (2017): 84–105; Lal Zimman, “Trans People’s Linguistic Self-Determination and the Dialogic Nature of Identity,” in Representing Trans: Linguistic, Legal, and Everyday Perspectives, ed. Evan Hazenberg and Miriam Meyerhoff (Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University Press, 2017). 38 Sonny Nordmarken studies and performativity frameworks to theorize these practices. By approximating new gender pronoun-attribution norms that bring a trans queer paradigm to life in interactions and by disregarding their perceptions of each other’s bodies, actors accomplish gender pronouns linguistically, override hegemonic gender attribution norms, and reorganize gender accountability. These practices institutionalize a new interpretive frame and accountability structure through which social actors create and recognize a variety of gender expressions, identities, and pronouns, reworking performativity to produce gender minorities as subjects. I argue that this gendering-queering is a form of disidentificatory gender accomplishment. In addition, I...
Abstract The article focuses on a comparison of English-Estonian code-copying in blogs and in vlogs. This paper applies a usage-based approach, combining a cognitive angle with the code-copying framework. The aim is to provide a holistic view on contact-induced language change by applying bottom-up analysis of naturalistic multilingual language use. In contact linguistic literature it has been observed that there is a preference for insertions vs. alternations depending on sociolinguistic setting (community type, generation, proficiency) and structural properties of the languages involved. Research on English-Estonian language contacts has shown that in blogs there is no clear preference for either. From a different point of view, it has been observed that lexical impact (global copying in the terms of code-copying framework) precedes semantic and structural impact (selective copying) but provide no explanation. Comparisons between blogs (750 entries and 275,263 words from 45 bloggers) and vlogs (5,5 hours, approximately 36,854 words from 5 vloggers) shows that global copies and alternations heavily prevail over other types of copying, yet the number of selective copies is somewhat higher in vlogs and of mixed copies in blogs. Selective copies are loan translations rather than structural changes. We assume that (1) prevalence of global copies and alternations depends on genre norms (blogs and vlogs are constructed as non-monolingual, highly individualized genres); (2) as selective copies are mostly loan translations, it implies the role of meaning and cognitive aspects: idioms and fixed expressions are figurative and cognitively prominent; combinational properties and grammatical meanings are abstract; so, the more abstract the meaning is, the more cognitive effort and time is required for entrenchment and conventionalization; (3) copying and alternation is denser in vlogs because the genre is oral and spontaneous vs. written, edited genre of blog.
This article analyzes two translations and one adaptation of Gulliver’s travels, by Jonathan Swift, a novel originally published in the eighteenth century. The main goal of this study is to observe if translators and adaptors have applied the standard norm of Brazilian Portuguese as a tool to carry out a temporal distancing effect derived from both lexical selection and adoption of particular linguistic structures that attain a semantic, syntactic and stylistic representation of such effect. The results show that, in fact, translators has resorted to strategic use of certain lexical items and grammatical structures that bring out a temporal distancing effect, but some editions have displayed hybrid linguistic structures in line with some informal register, which includes one of the adaptations analyzed, particularly destined for young readers.
Verb bias facilitates parsing of temporarily ambiguous sentences, but it is unclear when and how comprehenders use probabilistic knowledge about the combinatorial properties of verbs in context. In a self-paced reading experiment, participants read direct object/sentential complement sentences. Reading time in the critical region was investigated as a function of three forms of bias: structural bias (the frequency with which a verb appears in direct object/sentential complement sentences), lexical bias (the simple co-occurrence of verbs and other lexical items), and global bias (obtained from norming data about the use of verbs with specific noun phrases). For reading times at the critical word, structural bias was the only reliable predictor. However, global bias was superior to structural and lexical bias at the post-critical word and for offline acceptability ratings. The results suggest that structural information about verbs is available immediately, but that context-specific, semantic information becomes increasingly informative as processing proceeds.
Abstract The Wedding Invitation is one of the significant text genres. Following genre analysis approach and discourse analysis (DA), the present research analysed the wedding invitation genres in Pakistan to explore generic structures, as well as the role played by the broader socio-cultural norms and values in shaping this genre. Therefore, a corpus of 50 wedding invitations in Urdu and English was randomly selected from cards received from January to June 2018. The results of this genre analysis revealed seven obligatory and one optional move in Urdu, while six obligatory and one optional move in English invitations. Through discourse analysis, it has been uncovered how religious association and cultural influence in Pakistani society shape textual selection. Little variation was displayed in the invitations of the two languages, presumably due to regional cultural reflections and recent influence of western values. A comparison of Pakistani and UK invitations showed differences not only in move selection but also in lexical choices which are shaped by the respective cultures.
The article deals with the relevant linguistic issue of correlation between word spelling and the distinction of units belonging to different grammatical classes. The concepts of word and part of speech are contrasted. The author has revealed the peculiarities of lexical units functioning in written speech, which enables their part-of-speech status identification. The analysis of criteria, suggested by the linguists for differentiation of homonymous adverbs, preposition-and-case-form combinations, and derivative prepositions resulted in proposing a procedure of consecutive operations, accomplished to identify the part-of-speech status of grammatically homonymous words. The results of the linguistic experiment show how in speech practice native speakers solve the problems of part of speech determination and establishing the spelling of such words. It was revealed that the methods for distinguishing grammatical homonyms used by recipients, in many cases, do not lead to the correct solution. The existing codified guidelines are not applied while writing, as spelling of the major part of grammatically homonymous words does not meet the requirements of the norm. To solve the problem under consideration, it is necessary to adjust the content of spelling rules and change the spelling of a number of words, where traditional spelling principles are reflected.
Reading speed is achieved based on automatic word recognition and, together with prosody, constitutes an essential link between word recognition and text comprehension. Despite the relevance of reading speed acquisition for success at school, a high percentage of children growing up in poverty contexts face difficulties in achieving automatic word recognition. Consequently, this paper aims to contribute to the understanding of difficulties in reading speed acquisition in children growing in poverty contexts. Two studies were designed. In the first study, in order to explore the origin of difficulties in developing word reading speed, a comparison of the cognitive profiles of children from low-income backgrounds with and without difficulties in this ability was carried out. In a previous study, norms were obtained for accuracy and speed in a word reading test. Participants were 168 6th grade children from several educational institutions attending children growing up in poverty contexts in Buenos Aires, Argentina. In the present study, the same word reading test was administered to 96 6th grade children. Based on the norms obtained in the previous study, two groups of children were identified: a group who performed at or above the 50th percentile in reading accuracy but below the 30th percentile in reading speed and another group performing at or above the 50th percentile in both measures. The first group was made up of 22 children, and the second one, of 46 children. The remaining 28 children were not included in the study because they performed below the 50th percentile in reading accuracy. Additional tests measuring phonological awareness, rapid naming, verbal memory and word spelling were administered to children in both groups. Between-groups comparisons in these tasks showed that children with speed acquisition difficulties underperformed the other group in the tests tapping phonological awareness, rapid naming and spelling. These results suggest that the children in the group experiencing reading difficulties were still using the phonological route for word recognition. The second study aimed to explore whether a specifically designed educational intervention could enable children with low reading speed from the previous study to increase their reading speed.Both groups of children (with and without reading speed difficulties) were administered two additional reading tests: an experimental test comprising target words which would subsequently be included in the training study for the children with reading speed difficulties; and a reading test of additional words and pseudo words not targeted in the training study, but considered transfer items because they comprised sub lexical units that were included in the target words to be trained during the intervention. These same reading tests were re-administered as a post-test, after the reading intervention for the reading speed difficulties group. The training study aimed to promote reading speed via the acquisition of orthographic representations. The intervention involved two weekly individual sessions lasting 20 minutes each. Each child participated of a total of 15 sessions. Each session included repeated and accelerated reading of lexical units, as well as activities for promoting the analysis of sublexical units included in the target words and also present in the transfer pseudo words from the post-test. The comparison between the pre- and posttest performance of the training group showed a statistically significant increase in reading speed both of trained and transfer words, an increase that was not obtained for the comparison group. This result suggests that during the intervention children were able to develop orthographic representations of the trained lexical units, but also of the sub lexical units that were present in both the target and the transfer words. Educational implications from this study point to the importance of repeated and accelerated reading for increasing speed, a critical reading ability.
In the context of the modern scientific paradigm of linguistics, the linguoculturological approach to the study of linguistic units is becoming more and more relevant. Proverbs occupy a special place as accumulators of cultural values and the centuries-old experience of a certain ethnic group. They form an important part of the communicative funds of ethnic groups (in particular, Russian and Mari), reflect the specifics of their thinking, and the national cultural semantics. This article traces and describes the evolution of the linguistic world-image of Russian and Mari linguocultures, considers the problem of creating stereotypical views about national culture and the features of ethnic mentality. The purpose of this research is to consider the basic components and features of verbalization of the lexical units "um" in Russian and "ush" in the Mari language and to give their contrastive description as fragments of ethnolinguo-cultural world-image. To this end, we carried out a thorough analysis of the definitions of wellknown explanatory dictionaries that represent the constant mental unit "um/ush" in the context of proverbs as ethnoculturally marked. The study is based on dictionaries and collections of proverbs and sayings of the Russian and Mari languages, the choice of which was determined by the objectives of the study and the popularity of these publications. The corpus of the Russian paroemiological material consists of about 1500 paroemias, in the Mari language, it includes about 400 paroemias. The comparative analysis method allowed us to determine ethnocultural similarities and differences of the "um/ush" phenomenon among the representatives of two different language families. By comparing lexicographic interpretations with these peoples' naive stereotypical representations of "mind", mirrored by their paroemiosphere, where the semantic boundaries of the lexical units "um / ush" expand, we have come to the conclusion that the languages under study are characterized by a commonality of fundamental values, while the differences are reflected in nuances of expression, distribution, and combinatorics of the norms.
Recent scholarship suggests that social norms are becoming more permissive of prejudicial talk about immigrants in the United States (Crandall, Miller, & White, 2018). This is in keeping with trends observed internationally (e.g., Krzyżanowski, 2018; Vollmer & Karakayali, 2018). Past studies of discourse about immigration in the United States have identified a number of patterns — most notably those relating immigrants to threat (e.g., Santa Ana, 2002) — though some have found patterns framing immigration as beneficial (e.g., Strauss, 2012). This study explores discursive patterns about immigrant education in online comments from American newspapers. It focuses on change exhibited by exploring salient lexical and thematic patterns in 2016 comments relative to such patterns in 2009 comments. Using a corpus linguistics design, keyword, thematic, and other analytical techniques were applied to identify and describe the most prominent new patterns in the 2016 comments. Seven themes, through which immigration was framed negatively, emerged as new and salient in 2016. The article also includes discussion of cross-thematic patterns (e.g., a zero-sum framework) identified in the analysis.
Introduction. The purpose of the article is the analysis of verbalization of maidenhood concepts in traditional culture. The materials of the study are dialect dictionaries, as well as the materials of dialectological expeditions conducted by Tomsk State University linguists from 1947 to nowadays in the dialects distribution territory of the Middle Ob Region. The use of this material allows us to explore the concept of maidenhood, taking into account the changes taking place in the dialect culture and caused by both linguistic and extralinguistic factors. Results. Concepts of maidenhood are objectified in the lexical and phraseological dialect units, nominating maidens and characterizing their behavior. In peasant culture, marriage was considered as the fulfillment of the main female life purpose. Therefore, society demonstrated the importance attached to the preservation of maiden honor. It was reflected in a number of stable combinations that denominate a virgin. Noncompliance with this form was a great disgrace for a girl and her parents. The loss of virginity and the birth of a child before marriage are characterized by units containing seme `shame‘. Zoomorphic metaphors are also used in dialect speech, indicating the comparison of extramarital relations with the animal world, in which the rules of human society do not operate. Marriage for a girl in traditional culture is perceived as a necessity, this fact is evidenced by the analysis of ritual lyrics. In dialectal folklore ditties are recorded with the intention of warning or recommendations not to marry. The use of a large number of verbs, the grammatical form of which reflects the lack of participation of the girl in the decision to marry is also characteristic. The analysis of the units nominating wedding ceremonies confirms the idea that marriage was economically beneficial and did not depend on emotional attachment. The wedding is treated as a ritual transition, initiating a girl to the status of a woman. At the same time, the transformation of the concept of maidenhood is shown due to social, historical and economic factors. Dialect speakers note a change of social norms. They condemn the behavior of modern girls, in relationships with the opposite sex before marriage, and the lack of a sense of shame for that matter. Dialect speakers also mention the disappearance or simplification of the wedding rite and the absence of legal relations between the spouses.
This paper considers the phonological patterning of pharyngealised /r/ in a dialect of Moroccan Arabic. Through acoustic analysis of recorded interviews targeting specific vocabulary and morphological paradigms, I describe a marginally contrastive distribution of emphatic and plain rhotic variants among Arabic speakers in Fès, indicating that pharyngealised variants trigger a process similar to, but distinct from, the emphasis spread associated with the canonical emphatic consonants /ṭ/, /ḍ/, and /ṣ/. While in some varieties of Arabic, rhotic pharyngealisation is an allophonic alternation conditioned by adjacent back vowels, in others [ṛ] has spread through morphological and lexical diffusion to attain quasi-phonemic status. In the changing urban dialect of Fès, the presence of conflicting dialect norms allows us to study how individuals resolve ambiguous phonological input with respect to /ṛ/, and how this is manifested in their phonetic output.For this study, I conducted 24 mixed sociolinguistic/phonetic interviews, with the help of native Fessi interview assistants. The interviews provide a comprehensive sample of rhotics for each speaker, which were analyzed for their phonetic effects on adjacent vowels. The acoustic data indicate a wide range of individual variability in the patterning of emphatic /ṛ/, tempered by predictable patterns in certain paradigms such as ḥmaṛ ‘donkey’ with non-emphatic plural ḥmir, or the minimal contrast between biṛan ‘bars’ and biran ‘wells’. Speakers also exhibited variability in the scope of pharyngealisation spread from /ṛ/, even though all speakers exhibited predictable long-range spread from /ṭ/, /ṣ/, and /ḍ/. These results point to a phonological change in progress, moving in the direction of phonemic pharyngealized /ṛ/.
The essay explores lexical coincidences in the works of Yuri Tynianov and Osip Mandelshtam coincidences which appeared in different time periods, independently of each other.In the second half of the 1920s, Tynianov wrote the novel Death of the Vazir-Mukhtar which, while dealing with events of the 1820s, anticipated the soon-tobe disappearance of free artistic speech.Ten years later, Tynianov's anticipation became a reality reflected in Mandelstam's poem Lamarck. Freedom of creative activity did not disappear completely but became, in many respects, a thing of the past. Even if the hope for the return of free expression still existed, no one imagined when this event would take place. Loyalty to the regime and assentation were the signs of the times. Studies of Soviet artistic life in that period reveal the extreme degree of the unnatural selection aimed at creating unwavering servants of the regime. One of such servants wrote: In today's situation, genius and villainy are two compatible things: the killing of a Mozart may assist history.Such assistance to history became a Soviet norm and, according to independent Russian migr observers, led to a situation in which Soviet literature lost the position within world literature obtained by the Russian classical literature of the 19th century and acquired unmistakably provincial traits. As Shigalev declared in Dostoyevsky's Demons, All are slaves and equal in their slavery.Analogous processes were taking place in cinema, where pro-regime servilism due to cinema's ability to influence the audience more rapidly and more powerfully than literature acquired its most dangerous form. This was fully understood by the Bolshevik regime which held cinema in high regard. Creating art? No, doing what you were told to do, this was how Soviet filmmaker Leonid Trauberg later described those times.
The paper raises the question of the normative representation of socio-political terms in modern explanatory dictionaries, the elaboration of a correct definition that would reflect the key characteristics of the latest lexemes. Among the special features of socio-political nomination we can emphasize the following: high instability, if to compare with other groups of vocabulary; specifics of communicative influence; names emergence before the establishment of the phenomena itself; desemantization of frequently used words and phrases. Among the most important principles of dictionary compiling we point out: 1) the team of compilers formation (specialists in the field of knowledge to be covered by dictionary, who is responsible for selecting terms for the dictionary, and for the professional correctness and objectivity of the definitions; a linguist-terminologist who recommends which term to use by agreeing it with a definition and terms of other languages; Ukrainian philologist, who edits terms and their definition according to the norms of modern Ukrainian language; a programmer who provides the implementation of the project at a computer level that makes it possible substantially to improve the work of the group); 2) the creation of a dictionary database (the use of all available branch dictionaries (translated, interpretative, encyclopaedic); the use of scientific literature and periodicals (for example, there are many terms in the periodicity that have already been distributed but have not yet found their place in dictionaries), direct work with informants – specialists of the relevant branch, who will complement the existing bank with the frequently used terms, or with the terms difficult to translate into Ukrainian, the latest in the branch, do not have a unique interpretation among specialists etc.; 3) working out definitions; 4) choosing appropriate Ukrainian term or translating into Ukrainian. The analysis of the latest lexical material in comparison with the data of the earlier dictionaries makes it possible to talk about changes in the meaning of a number of words and phrases (including Sovietisms), about the emergence or actualization of political meanings in words from outside of the political sphere, about the complication of systemic links between the words of one nest, the blurring of the semantics of some units. The absolute unification of definition is impossible because of certain restrictions, such as: 1. the semantics of some words is not limited to the certain standard interpretation, it requires the introduction of a new generic concept into the definition; 2. the word with political semantics should organically fit into the vocabulary system, which includes the vocabulary of other thematic groups. In a language, a term may belong to several different fields of knowledge or have several meanings, only one of which belongs to the group under consideration. The standard definition can only be used unchanged if it is potentially can be used in different thematic groups and covers the semantics of a word that goes beyond the scope of politics, or if the political and non-political meanings can be clearly deduced in the dictionary article. It can be argued that the problem of unifying definitions at the level of the main part of the term-fund remains open in terminology, despite the fact that possible solutions to this problem have been repeatedly violated in the scientific literature. In addition, the study and practical application of extra-intronging factors of creation and use of certain terms helps to unify the terminology system itself.
The article deals with the problem of using a literary text in teaching Ukrainian as a foreign language, in particular, the need to take into account psychological factors when working with a literary text in a language class.The universal nature of fiction literature motivates and justifies the usage of such educational material. Fiction deals with universal and eternal problems: love, separation, hope, faith, struggle, death, betrayal, etc. Therefore, the literary text can excite people of different nationalities. The paper analyzes the psychological and psycholinguistic approaches to reading fiction and using it in teaching. A complete perception of a literary text is possible provided that the semantic fields of the text and semantic fields (primarily emotional) of the reader intersect. Stimulation of the emotional sphere contributes to the effective development of speech skills and facilitates the memorization of lexical units and grammatical and stylistic norms. Therefore, taking into account the interests of foreign students is a main factor for selecting literary texts and organizing effective work with them in the process of teaching Ukrainian as a foreign language. The author defines the specifics of communication “an author – a literary text in a foreign language – a reader”. It is carried out with the help of an intermediary. Such an intermediary is a teacher or an author of a book on literary reading. They select a literary text appealing to the audience, adapt it if necessary, offer comments and a task system, and draw the readers’ attention to important points that can inspire interest and cause discussion, help to establish a parallel between the literary text and the students’ life experience. Thus, the teacher acts as the moderator of the reading process helping to bring the artistic space of the literary text close to the foreign reader’s personality. The author gives examples from her own experience in teaching the Ukrainian language to foreigners using literary texts. Motivated reading and effective discussion of the texts are possible if the students are personally interested in the problems, the events, the heroes’ fate, and the author’s position.
Reviewed by: The SBL Commentary on the Septuagint: An Introduction ed. by Dirk Büchner Stephen A. Long dirk büchner (ed.), The SBL Commentary on the Septuagint: An Introduction (SCS 67; Atlanta: SBL Press, 2017). Pp. xviii + 259. Paper $37.95. This volume provides the basic principles for the Society of Biblical Literature Commentary on the Septuagint (SBLCS) and offers seven studies to illustrate the approach of the series. Albert Pietersma writes an introductory essay, "The Society of Biblical Literature Commentary on the Septuagint: Basic Principles," which expounds the Preamble to the Guidelines for the SBLCS. The illustrative studies are the following: Robert J. V. Hiebert, "In the Beginning: A Commentary on the Old Greek Text of Genesis 1.1–2.3"; Larry Perkins, "'Drawn from the Water': A Commentary on the Old Greek Text of Exodus 2.1-10"; Dirk Büchner, "Leuitikon 3.1-17: The Sacrifice of Deliverance"; Spencer A. Jones, "Balaam, Pagan Prophet of God: A Commentary on Greek Numbers 22.1-21"; Cameron Boyd-Taylor, "A Tale of Two Eunuchs: A Commentary on Greek Esther 2.19-23 and A.12-17"; Claude E. Cox, "It's a Question of Intelligence: Iob 34"; and Jannes Smith, "God, Judges, Snakes, and Sinners: A Commentary on the Old Greek Text of Psalm 57 (MT 58)." Finally, an appendix contains the text of the "Preamble to the Guidelines for the Contributors to the SBL Commentary on the Septuagint." Pietersma's essay explains the distinction—fundamental to the SBLCS—between the text-as-received and the text-as-produced. Applied to translation literature such as the Septuagint, the text-as-produced refers to the translated text "as an entity dependent on its source text … in distinction from the translated text, cut loose from its historical moorings, and therefore a free standing text, or 'the text in its own right,' as it is sometimes called" (p. 2; emphasis original). As Pietersma repeatedly emphasizes, the SBLCS aims to elucidate only the text-as-produced—that is, it studies the Old Greek solely qua translation. "Crucial for determining the linguistic make-up of the text-as-produced, or rather its constitutive character, is, on the one hand, to map the translated text onto its source text, in order to establish what sort of translation one is dealing with, and, on the other, to consult Greek composition literature of the period in order to determine what sort of Greek document it is" (pp. 7-8; emphasis original). Put differently, the only "meaning" of significant interest to the SBLCS is defined by the Preamble to the Guidelines (section 1.4.1) as follows: "The [End Page 741] meaning of the text is best understood as encompassing both what the translator did and why" (emphasis original). More on this in a moment. Apart from Pietersma's essay, three chapters stood out for me. First, Büchner's commentary argues that the Greek translator of Leviticus 3 was concerned not with a culturally or technically accurate portrayal of ritual but with providing "a conduit to the language units of the original through etymologizing or through existing translational precedent" (p. 121). In so doing, the translator was often guided by terminology related to Greek θυσία—resulting in some curious renderings of the source language. Second, the essay by Boyd-Taylor on Esther is worthy of mention as an example of tackling problems raised by a composite text when the aim is solely to comment on the text-as-produced. Finally, the essay by Cox illustrates the extent of the editing, abbreviating, and interpretation present in Greek Job. These 256 pages relentlessly pursue the question of translational "meaning" as defined above. What this entails practically is perhaps best illustrated by quoting some typical examples. Consider the comment on the first clause of Gen 1:18, explaining the translation adopted for the heavenly luminaries' "rule over" the day and night: "In his choice of ἄρχω + genitive direct object, G fashions an acceptable translation that conforms to the norms of the target language rather than attempting to replicate the Hebrew idiom ב לשמ" (p. 43). Or, consider the comment on lexical innovation with regard to the "blessing" pronounced in Gen 1:22: "G...
Despite extensive recent investigations of moral judgments, little is known about how negative judgments like blame might differ from positive judgments like praise. Drawing on theory from both social and moral cognition, the present studies identify and test potential asymmetries in the extremity and differentiatedness of blame as compared to praise. The amplified blame hypothesis predicts that people will assign greater blame for negative behaviors than praise for positive behaviors. The differentiated blame hypothesis predicts that, as compared to praise judgments, blame judgments will more finely differentiate among distinct mental states that precede action, such as thoughts, desires, and intentions. A series of studies—using varied stimulus sets and samples—together provide robust support for the differentiated blame hypothesis and somewhat weaker support for the amplified blame hypotheses. These results illustrate systematic asymmetries between blame and praise, generally revea)
The article deals with the characteristic feature of the period of language instability, namely the conflict between the norm and codification in one of the Russian language areas that is subject to greatest variation. The author analyses establishment of the new norm in the process of assigning grammatical category of gender to borrowed indeclinable nouns. The study of this lexical group shows that approximately half of the new words form gender according to the principle of semantic analogy. This fact allows us to maintain that in the Russian of the XXI c. there is a process of broadening in the sphere of application of the rule about assigning gender to indeclinable inanimate onyms and abbreviations. Previously having a limited sphere of application, now this rule also extends to indeclinable inanimate appellatives. However the action of the “older” norm, according to which indeclinable nouns were assigned neuter gender, is also manifested, creating conditions for word variation.
The aim of the present research is to study features of verbalization of gender asymmetry and gender stereotypes in the Russian culture of language. Data of lesbian dating sites, as well as blogs, an interview of the famous people who are openly positioning themselves as representatives with atypical gender identification of the personality, serving as a material of this research, are analyzed. Thematic blocks are revealed, in which recipients define the gender identity and simulate a moral and value-oriented state through verbally transmitted (1) "values"; (2) "assessment"; (3) "feelings"; and (4) "interests". The article describes the grammatical forms of a masculine gender of nouns, adjectives and verbs pointing to neutral gender of individuals, which is not keeping within "Procrustean bed" of the standard norms of existence of a biological and social gender. The publication examines the European queer identity concepts of Elisabeth Grosz, Teresa de Lauretis and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick acquiring special relevance in connection with gender deconstruction and, as a result, mass legitimation ofsame-sex marriages in many countries of Europe and separate states of the USA. The characteristics of a generalized image of the atypical female language personality implemented with the help of the dominating lexical and syntactic means of the emotivity expression are noted. The conclusion can be drawn that in general the speech portrait of heroines meets typical gender expectations of women, it is emotionally charged thanks to colloquial, slangy lexicon, existence of constructions among which are units which underwent truncation; estimated negative lexicon; abbreviations; foreign-language lexicon; and neologisms. At the syntactic level the analyzed means of expressional syntax, nonjudgmental speech, despite stated earlier gender-neutral, give to the speech "womanlike nature", emotionality and randomness of thinking. Involvement in child-free subculture is noted that in general distinguishes representatives of lesbian culture from individuals of traditional feminine type, as a rule, of persons interested to leave posterity behind. According to observations, most of men androgynes have indistinct verbal limits of gender identity that demonstrates, first, lack of an exact term framework for people with gender asymmetry; secondly, informs on indistinct representations of own gender identity; and thirdly, allows identification of sexual roles of partners in the relationships.
This paper conducts a comparative study about four translations of sūrat alInshiqāq: Yousef Ali, Muhammad Hilali-Muhsin Khan, Pickthall and Mohammad Abdel Haleem. Multiple opinions of exposition have been provided to explore how, in certain ayas, the translators fail to find an appropriate equivalent. The translations' problems are categorized into lexical, stylistic and syntactic problems, whereas these categories also have sub-categories in order to clarify the gaps that might be encountered while translating the Qur'anic text. The problems are investigated through the theories of free and bound translation. Since religious texts, especially the sacred ones, are contextbased, they have different meanings which are not easy to tackle. In conclusion, the lexical, syntactic and stylistic norms of the target language fail to match those of the Qur’an discourse because these features are far from universal. Keywords: Religious translation, Untranslatability, Qur'an exposition.
The aim of this work is to present a brief analysis of the complex language that differentiates a patent from any other technical document. As far as Italian and Spanish patents are concerned, in fact, it is possible to identify a set of lexical, syntactical and textual characteristics that are the result of a well-balanced combination between technical and legal language in order to guarantee a consistent style to this unique genre. The second part of this work offers some general norms required to provide a literal translation of a patent before introducing some practical examples of translation from Spanish into Italian with a particular interest on the environment related lexicon present in a patent against marine plastic pollution.
The textbook is the basic school book which is designed on the basis of the curriculum and in accordance with the norms of the education process. The aim of this paper is reflected primarily in the emphasis placed on the relevance of the structure and content of foreign language textbooks, as well as their proper and correct organisation and didactic design. Our intentions are also reflected in the effort to highlight the importance of numerous didactic functions of school textbooks which represent a trustworthy, comprehensive, coherent and systemic source of knowledge where the curricular content is most competently demonstrated and presented. Textbooks direct, shape and orientate the teaching process, they stimulate the development of the students’ mental abilities and contribute to the achievement of the best possible mutual interaction among the elements of the ‘didactic triangle’: students, teachers and curricular content. Which didactic function will have specific effects and at what time interval of the teaching process—this depends primarily on the aim of the learning process. All contents of textbook lessons which present certain topics should be adequately adjusted in didactic terms. During the conceptualisation of foreign language textbooks, it is particularly important to adjust the textbooks’ contents to the intellectual profile, vital needs and experience of the students. It is necessary to interpret the envisaged curricular units through numerous and various forms, to pay attention to the different language skills of the students, the degree of differentiation among individual cognitive styles, different paces of learning and mastering a foreign language. Texts in school books need to be interesting and easy to learn; they should broaden information in the field of culture, encourage the students’ initiatives and their desire to enter communication. In this regard, it is also important to pay attention to the number of new lexical units and exercises, as well as the degree of connection among linguistic contents. The teacher is an irreplaceable subject in the learning process. He or she performs a coordinative and regulative function, connecting, integrating, mediating, harmonising the actions and the relationship between the textbook and the students. A textbook’s success depends largely on the manner in which the teacher presents the linguistic material. He or she should oppose formalism and routineness due to the application of the textbook structure. A foreign (Russian) language teacher needs to take a slightly independent and critical approach to the textbook, to carefully and expertly analyse the provided school book texts, to improve, perfect, upgrade and adjust them to the concrete linguistic situation. When teachers adopt such a position in regard to the textbook, this contributes to the students’ more creative, more relaxed and more open attitude towards the textbook structure which they actively use in class. Today, foreign language textbooks reflect the adequate methodical efforts to adjust new generations of foreign language textbook structures to the changed conditions of the international sociolinguistic position and the linguo-didactic functioning of each foreign language in numerous sociocultural settings. The goal of such textbooks is to encourage, develop and affirm the sociocultural and communicative knowledge and skills of the students in the field of intercultural communicative education.
was born in 1939. A student of grammar who graduated in the field of Serbo-Croat languages taught classical linguistics at the University of Rouen from 1967 to 2004. He published more than one hundred articles on morphology, syntax, the lexicon of classical languages (Latin, Greek and Sanskrit) and on Caucasian linguistics. Twenty eight of his articles, rewritten and completed, were brought together in Words and Myths in 2008. Several other books published by Christol are devoted to Latin and to Greek such as Homonymy in Latin and Greek lexicons and The Latin of the cooks: vegetable nutrition, lexical study. The latter addresses the Latin lexicon of cooking, which he reconstructed from two collections of recipes, transmitted under the name of Apicius, a famous gastronome of the time of Augustus, although these texts were written between fourth and seventh centuries and in a language that departs from the classical norm.
In the light of the most recent critical debate, sixteenth-century Petrarchism has been divested of the simple dichotomy between norm and rejection, similarity and dissimilarity, imitation and deviation in relation to Petrarch’s model or Bembo’s codification, and qualified as a complex and composite movement in which both significant constants and equally significant variations should be identified. In the frame of this dialectic, we analyse Michelangelo Buonarroti’s Rime in comparison to the original model of Rerum vulgarium fragmenta. The analysis highlights the fact that Michelangelo’s genius distorts the reference model and deviates from it in a material, tragic and expressionist sense, rather than offering a harmonious result of a strict observance of Petrarchism. Michelangelo, however, achieves this effect by employing the same rhetorical and expressive tools as Petrarch. The paper presents a comparative analysis illustrated by numerous examples of the rhetorical figures of antithesis, oxymoron, synonymy and a wide array of metaphors and lexical choices.
The interest on French in sub-Saharan Africa is certainly related to the fact that it differs in many ways from French in France. The appropriation of French as a second language by African speakers has fostered the birth of endogenous norms with peculiarities that affect phonetic-phonological, lexical, morphological, syntactic and, also pragmatic-textual levels. However, research on the latter aspect remains at an embryonic stage. Concerning Côte d'Ivoire and its complex linguistic landscape consisting of some sixty languages, it often occurs that French serves both as vehicular and vernacular. While its phonetic, lexical and morpho-syntactic features have already been extensively researched, this is not the case for the pragmatic and textual aspects. This work intends to fill in the gap by focusing on the uses of the borrowed discourse marker dɛ in Ivorian popular French.
Identifying eye-movement measures as objective indicators of mind wandering seems to be a work in progress. We reviewed research comparing eye movements during self-categorized episodes of normal versus mindless reading and found little consensus regarding the specific measures that are sensitive to attentional decoupling during mind wandering. To address this issue of inconsistency, we conducted a new, high-powered eye-tracking experiment and considered all previously identified mind-wandering indicators. In our experiment, only three measures (reading time, fixation count, and first-fixation duration) positively predicted self-categorized mindless reading. Aside from these single measures, the word-frequency effect was found to be generally less pronounced during mindless-reading than during normal-reading episodes. To additionally test for convergent validity between the objective and subjective mind-wandering measures, we utilized eye-movement measures as well as thought reports, to examine the effect of metacognitive awareness on mind-wandering behavior. We expected that participants anticipating a difficult comprehension test would mind wander less during reading than would those anticipating an easy test. Although we were able to induce metacognitive expectancies about task difficulty, we found no evidence that these difficulty expectancies affected either subjectively reported or objectively measured mind wandering.
espanolEn este articulo se analizan las principales influencias del catalan en la formacion de la norma del castellano durante el periodo medieval. En primer lugar, se constata la existencia de numerosos prestamos lexicos en los primeros siglos medievales y se destaca el papel del catalan como transmisor de neologismos lexicos procedentes de Italia durante el periodo prerrenacentista. Despues, se estudia el papel del catalan en la introduccion de algunos cambios sintacticos. Y, final- mente, se alude a la probable influencia del rechazo catalan del laismo en la configuracion de la norma academica. EnglishIn this article we analyze the main influences of Catalan in the configuration of the Castilian norm during the medieval period. First, we verify the existence of numerous loan words during the early medieval centuries and we emphasize the role of Catalan as a transmitter of some lexical neologisms from Italy during the pre-Renaissance period. Second, we study the role of Catalan in the introduction of some syntactic changes. Finally, we allude to the probable influence of the Catalan rejection of laismo in the configuration of the standard language.
The article is devoted to the analysis of verbalization of gender representations and identifying of female dialect discourse potential to study them. The research was done on the material of Middle Ob dialects. The specificity of women's dialect discourse associated with the territorial factor, the conditions of recording of material, genre features, theme is considered. The verbalization of gender representations is considered from the position of expression by different language means. Gender-marked units, words with evaluative semes, serving for the characteristics of men and women are considered are considered at the lexical level. At the level of the text, gender-oriented and self-identifying statements are studied. Representations concerning specialization of labor duties and characteristics of men and women connected with industriousness and domesticity are considered. The analyzed texts reflect stereotypes about the specialization of labor associated with traditional patriarchal values, the discrepancy of which is perceived as a deviation from the norm, and following it as an ideal. These representations are a source of judgments and estimates, they define cultural expectations. The transformations caused by the social and historical changes taking place in society, as well as the social policy of the state in relation to men and women are revealed. These changes contributed to the creating of new criteria for assessing women, had an impact on the design and description of identity.
espanolEn 1969, Philippe Jaccottet tradujo para la revista Aquila el poema Dunja de Giuseppe Ungaretti. El estudio tiene como objetivo destacar la singularidad de esta traduccion, arrojar luz sobre la genetica de su escritura: es decir, penetrar el lado invisible del proceso de traduccion en el que participan el autor y el traductor. A partir de la aclaracion terminologica de la nocion de transparencia, se aplica para dilucidar las estrategias del traductor, destacando la dialectica de la hermetica y de la hermeneutica. La yuxtaposicion de las versiones del poema, elaboradas por Jaccottet durante el trabajo en curso, proporciona informacion sobre los pasos de la traduccion transparente, comenzando por el trabajo sobre el lexico que se refiere a la busqueda de la equivalencia. Revela, ademas, las indecisiones y las dudas de un traductor advertido, consciente de la imposibilidad de comprender el enunciado poetico, descuidando sus aspectos emocional, imaginal y prosodico. Para llegar a la conclusion de que se trata de una traduccion “relevante”, resultado de un trabajo meticuloso sobre las potencialidades de la lengua meta, que no duda en transgredir sus normas gramaticales para preservar la extraneza del texto fuente. EnglishIn 1969 Philippe Jaccottet translated for the magazine Aquila the poem Dunja by Giuseppe Ungaretti. The study aims to highlight the singularity of this translation, shedding light on the genetics of its writing: that is to say to penetrate the invisible side of translating in which both the author and the translator participate. Starting from the terminological clarification of the notion of transparency, it applies itself to elucidate the translator’s strategies by highlighting the dialectic of hermetics and hermeneutics. The juxtaposition of the poem’s versions, elaborated by Jaccottet during the work in progress, provides information on the stages of transparent translation starting with the lexical work which concerns the search for equivalence. It reveals furthermore the hesitations and doubts of a wise translator, aware of the impossibility of understanding the poetic statement by neglecting its emotional, imaginal and prosodic aspects. In order to reach the conclusion that this is indeed a “relevant” translation, resulting from a meticulous work on the potentialities of the target language, which does not hesitate to transgress its grammatical norms with the purpose of preserving the foreignness of the source text. francaisEn 1969, Philippe Jaccottet traduit pour la revue Aquila le poeme Dunja de Giuseppe Ungaretti. L’etude tente de relever la singularite de cette traduction, en jetant de la lumiere sur la genetique de sa redaction: autrement dit, de penetrer le cote invisible du processus traductif auquel collaborent l’auteur et le traducteur. A partir de la clarification terminologique de la notion de transparence, elle s’applique a elucider les strategies du traducteur, en mettant en relief la dialectique de l’hermetique et de l’hermeneutique. La juxtaposition des versions jaccottiennes du poeme, elaborees au cours du « work in progress », renseigne sur les etapes de la traduction transparente, a commencer par le travail sur le lexique qui concerne la recherche d’equivalence. Elle revele en outre les hesitations et les doutes d’un traducteur averti, conscient de l’impossibilite de comprendre l’enonce poetique, en negligeant ses aspects affectif, imaginal et prosodique. Pour aboutir a la conclusion qu’il s’agit bien d’une traduction « relevante », resultat d’un travail minutieux sur les potentialites de la langue cible, qui n’hesite pas a transgresser les normes grammaticales de celle-ci afin de preserver l’etrangete du texte source.
Objective of the research is to find out structural-semantic and functionally stylistic features of the borrowed vocabulary in poetry by Lina Kostenko. Methods. Theoretical — analysis and synthesis of literature of the researched issue; practical — to obtain factual materials and based on them make conclusions regarding structural-semantic and functionally stylistic features of the borrowed vocabulary in oeuvre by Lina Kostenko. Results. Language (and therefore speech) is both stylistics, orthoepia, and compliance grammatical norms, etc., but above all it is vocabulary. And the vocabulary of the speaker is characterized first of all by its purity, synonymous and phraseological richness, normativity of pronunciation and, finally, correlation of native (Ukrainian) foreign words. Vocabulary of the modern Ukrainian language was formed in the process of its extended historical development and is a product of many epochs. Its shaping and development is closely connected with the history of Ukrainian people. Based on the factual material selected, we can conclude that Lina Kostenko most often uses words that are borrowed from Western European languages 48 % from 100 % (German, French, English, Italian); for the most part, it uses them without changing the value, but uses it as a comparison. Non-Slavic borrowings (from Latin, Ancient Greek, Turkic) make up 44 % of the studied words, the meaning of which the poet sometimes changes; uses for comparison. The borrowing from the Slavic languages (Old Slavic, Polonism, Russian) used by L. Kostenko is only 8 %. The author uses them without changing the values. The poet uses the borrowed elements of other languages with stylistic instruction with the purpose of creating the non-national diversity in the basis of Ukrainian language. Lina Kostenko also makes extensive use of terminology. After all, the potentialities of the corresponding lexical category create an artistic image, being part of a certain tropical figure, comparing and enriching the artistic color, expressive elevation of the artistic environment. Usage of vocabulary of foreign origin without its abuse and distortions, the way Lina Kostenko does, is one of the ways to enrich the vocabulary of language.
English Abstract: The special status of the German language, its multinational character and national variability are always in the focus of attention of different sciences and give practical material for research. It is the example of the German language that clearly demonstrates how strong the nonlinguistic factors can influence the history of its development. Thus, a pronounced dialectic and regional differentiation stems from the Reformation and feudal fragmentation of the Middle Ages. As a result of the political influence of one or another dynasty, the German-speaking region is far from heterogeneity, despite the geographical unity. The consequence of these factors has become the formation of different versions of the German language: Hochdeutsch (in the German’s territory), Osterreichisches Deutsch (in the Austria’s territory), Schweizer Deutsch (in the Switzerland’s territory). There are certainly distinctive features of the German language in Luxembourg and Liechtenstein. Being the dynamic system the language is responsive to all transformations taking place in the society and changes together with it. Unfortunately, not always these changes have positive and progressive character. In the XXI century the situation worsens by practically unlimited influence of the media, first of all, due to the possibilities of the global network. If in the second half of the XX century the statement that the media is the fourth power was rather declarative, then nowadays it has become evident. Online versions of different editions provide mass audience with almost real time information, sometimes in telegraphic style. In this case, unfortunately, it is not possible to preserve the purity of language in the broadest sense. The language becomes simpler from lexical, grammatical and syntactical points of view, saturated with foreign words (der Think-Tank, point of no return, das Statement) and uncharacteristic constructions (in 2019 instead of 2019), even the norms of pronunciation are violated (China). In the pursuit of the audience’s attention, in the desire not only to inform the public about a particular event but to portray it as a sensation, the media often resorts to different creative means, particularly on the lexical level (lindnern, sodern, der Kurz-Schluss, das Leyen-Theater, das Erdogate). The analysis of such items demonstrates the clear link between usually high-profile events taking place in the society and a rise of language phenomena that differ from normative rules. It is worth noting that therefore through language and the imposition of foreign norms manipulative influence impacts the mass audience, which can be countered by the well-considered and strict language policy at the national level. Russian Abstract: Особый статус немецкого языка, его полинациональность и национальная вариативность всегда находятся в центре внимания различных наук и дают практический материал для исследований. И именно на примере немецкого языка наглядно видно, насколько сильным может быть влияние экстралингвистических факторов на историю его развития. Так, достаточно ярко выраженная диалектная и региональная дифференциация берет свое начало в Реформации и феодальной раздробленности средних веков. В результате политического влияния той или иной династии немецкоязычный регион не отличается гетерогенностью, несмотря на географическое единство. Следствием подобных факторов стало формирование различных вариантов немецкого языка: Hochdeutsch (на территории Германии), Osterreichisches Deutsch (на территории Австрии), Schweizer Deutsch (на территории Швейцарии). Безусловно, есть также отличительные особенности немецкого языка в Люксембурге или Лихтенштейне. Будучи подвижной системой, язык чутко реагирует на все происходящие в обществе преобразования и изменяется вместе с ним. К сожалению, не всегда эти изменения носят положительный и прогрессивный характер. В XXI веке ситуация усугубляется практически безграничным влиянием СМИ, прежде всего, благодаря возможностям всемирной сети. Если во второй половине прошлого века утверждение, что СМИ являются четвертой властью, было скорее декларативным, то в настоящее время это стало очевидным. Online-версии различных изданий предоставляют массовой аудитории информацию практически в режиме реального времени, иногда в телеграфном стиле. В этом случае, к сожалению, не удается сохранять чистоту языка в самом широком смысле слова. Язык упрощается, как с лексической или грамматической точек зрения, так и синтаксически, насыщается иноязычными словами (der Think-Tank, point of no return, das Statement) и нетипичными конструкциями (in 2019 вместо 2019), даже нарушаются нормы произношения (China). В погоне за вниманием аудитории, желанием не просто проинформировать о том или ином событии, а представить его сенсационно, в СМИ зачастую прибегают к различным креативным способам, прежде всего, на лексическом уровне (lindnern, sodern, der Kurz-Schluss, das Leyen-Theater, das Erdogate). При анализе подобных наименований прослеживается четкая взаимосвязь между происходящими в обществе событиями, как правило, резонансными, и всплеском языковых явлений, отличных от нормативных правил. Стоит отметить, что таким образом, через язык и навязывание «чужих» норм оказывается манипулятивное воздействие на массовую аудиторию, противостоять которому возможно посредством хорошо продуманной и жесткой языковой политики на государственном уровне.
The article deals with the specificity of the pragmatic effect of the speech-act realization of biblical images-symbols in the mystical thrillers by Frank Peretti, the American postmodernism writer, whose worldview is based on Protestantism (Christianity). Biblical images-symbols artistically embodied into the mystical thrillers are biblical intertexts. Implemented in literary texts by lexical means, the biblical imagessymbols as biblical intertexts embody archetypal (biblical) representations and, at the same time, author’s associations while expressing the most significant ideas and guidelines for fictional texts The pragmatic analysis of the speech acts made it possible to develop a typology of pragmatic (perlocutionary) effects of the speech-act realization where biblical images-symbols are artistically embodied. The pragmatic effect is revealed in such statements, as representative, directive, comissive, and expressive. The pragmatic effect can be successful or unsuccessful, and manifested in verbal, nonverbal, and mixed forms. The perlocutionary effect can be considered as successful if it reaches the speaker’s goal. The unsuccessful perlocutionary effect is a situation where the result of communication does not meet the expectations of the speaker. The verbal successful pragmatic effect is expressed by the verbal behavior of the addressee, which corresponds to the intentions of the interlocutor. This reaction may be explicit or implicit. The explicit reaction is the use of clichéd forms of communication that are acceptable to a particular social group. The implicit response is the concealment of the implicit meanings that underlie the recipient’s verbal response to a particular message. The nonverbal successful pragmatic effect is expressed by the nonverbal behavior of the addressee, who silently obeys the speech intention of the interlocutor. The mixed successful perlocutionary effect is manifested in both nonverbal and verbal speech behavior of the addressee, which corresponds to the intentions of the interlocutor. The verbal unsuccessful pragmatic effect is expressed by speech behavior of the addressee, that does not meet the intentions of the interlocutor. This reaction may be explicit or implicit too. The nonverbal unsuccessful pragmatic effect is expressed by the nonverbal behavior of the addressee. The mixed unsuccessful pragmatic effect is manifested simultaneously in the nonverbal and verbal speech behavior of the addressee, that does not meet the intention of the interlocutor, thus, the perlocutionary effect is exacerbated by both reactions. The analysis of the characters’ biblically-marked contexts, which implemented different types of speech acts, revealed the factors of success / failure of the perlocutive effect, which may be as follows: congruity / incongruity of participants of communication, expectedness (predictability)/ unexpectedness (unpredictability) of the results of communication, relevance / irrelevance of the communication situation, congruence / incongruence with the norms of culture of behavior.
Cognitive linguistics considers language as a window into human consciousness providing insights into its structuresand reflecting fundamental properties of the human mind. Therefore, it reveals new prospects in studying binary oppositionswithin human consciousness via their language manifestations. This study aims to analyse the interplay of cognitivemechanisms of contradistinction and conceptual metaphors. The paper presents an empirical investigation of the binaryopposition LIGHT-DARK based on the data of the Associative Thesauri. The working hypothesis is that associative networkis motivated by hierarchical conceptual structures existing in the speakers’ minds. Therefore, responses evoked by certainstimuli can be regarded as the reflection of corresponding conceptual structures. The responses obtained via AE confirm atight connection between LIGHT and DARK and human ability of seeing as it was described by Wierzbicka (1996: 288).Furthermore, the obtained responses give possibility to trace the ways, in which LIGHT – ABILITY OF SEEING –REASONING, on the one hand, and DARK – INABILITY TO SEE – ABSENCE OF KNOWLEDGE/EDUCATION, onthe other hand, are interconnected and all together generate metaphors in systematic way. The analysis of the responsesreveals binary oppositions interacting with the opposition LIGHT – DARK. The consciousness of contemporary bearers oflanguages and cultures preserves deep-rooted relations of the light – dark opposition with the corresponding parts of otherbinary oppositions, namely day – night; sun – moon; white – black, red – black; sky – earth; happiness – unhappiness, life –death, etc. within the evaluative opposition positive – negative. 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Kay, Paul & McDaniel, Chad K. 1978. “The Linguistic Significance of the Meanings of Basic Color Terms”.Language 54(3): 610–646.Krzeszowski, Tomasz P. 1997. Angels and devils in hell: Elements of axiology in semantics. Warsaw: Energeia.Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark. 1980. Metaphors we live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark. 1999. Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge towestern thought. New York: Basic Books.Lakoff, George. 1987. Women, fire and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. Chicago:The University of Chicago Press.Luodonpaa-Manni, Milla, Esa Penttila, & Viimaranta, Johanna. 2017. “Introduction”. Luodonpaa-Manni, Milla& Penttila, Esa & Viimaranta Johanna (eds.), Empirical Approaches to Cognitive Linguistics: Analyzing Real-Life Data. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 1–21Paradis, Carita. 2016. “Corpus methods for the investigation of antonyms across languages”. 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Reviewed by: The Greek of the Pentateuch: Grinfield Lectures on the Septuagint 2011–2012 by John A. L. Lee Larry Perkins john a. l. lee, The Greek of the Pentateuch: Grinfield Lectures on the Septuagint 2011–2012 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019). Pp. xx + 360. $99. In this volume, John A. L. Lee, Honorary Fellow at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia, offers the substance of his 2011–2012 Grinfield Lectures on the Septuagint, with one change. He published separately the lecture materials on “The Literary Greek of Isaiah” and has substituted a chapter entitled “Greek Idiom” and added a final chapter “Conclusions.” The titles of the other lectures are “Evidence,” “Language Variation,” “Educated Language,” “Collaboration” and “Freedom of Choice.” In this work, he enlarges on his dissertation, which was similarly related to the Greek of the Pentateuch (A Lexical Study of the Septuagint Version of the Pentateuch [SCS 14; Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1983]). In the course of these lectures, L. examines “the language of the Greek Pentateuch” in order to evaluate the translators’ “knowledge of Greek, their methods, and the translators themselves” (p. 259). By careful examination of many different Greek idioms, lexical selection [End Page 157] and variation, and translation choices, he demonstrates that the translators “had full competence in Greek” (p. 259) and that “Greek syntax, not Hebrew, is the translators’ starting point” (p. 262). He acknowledges interference from the Hebrew text in various ways, but cautions that it is not as extensive as some propose. Further, he categorizes the form of Greek as “middle-level Koine Greek of their time” (p. 264), showing some affinities with “official or bureaucratic style of the third century BC” (p. 264). On the basis of these results, L. observes that “the translators were acquainted with the literary and poetic registers of their day, built on Classical models” (p. 265). The translators show competence in word formation and previous terminology. He concludes that all five translators demonstrate this competence, although they were not “exactly equal in the way they used the language” (p. 267). Some of the data, in his view, point to collaboration on the part of the Pentateuch translators. He relies here particularly on the common use of distinctive, technical vocabulary. He speculates that they created and used “a common glossary” (p. 270). He further suggests that their education exceeded the norm, having full competence “in writing standard Greek,” and this “included the sort of training that scribes and bureaucrats received in writing in the official style” (p. 268). In the end he concludes that the translators approached their task as “a scholarly endeavour”; that is, they brought “a scholarly attitude to the task” (p. 271) and had the training to do so. In all this he does not forget that “the content is Jewish, and the style has a Hebraic slant; more than that, we can tell that the translation was carried out by Jews” (p. 273) who possessed an advanced knowledge of the Hebrew language and interpretation of these texts. Their intended audience was educated, Greek-speaking Jews, but a non-Jewish audience would have appreciated the translation as well. Using his recognized expertise in Classical and Hellenistic Greek, lexicography, and the papyri related to the third century b.c.e., L. provides a wealth of detail to support his arguments and conclusions. Some segments he published previously, for example, his discussion about the onoma rule (2014). The data he reviews and the careful deductions he makes generate a compelling series of arguments. In many ways L. supports the conclusion reached by John William Wevers that “the product of the Alexandrian translators was throughout sensible” (Notes on the Greek Text of Exodus [SCS 30; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990] xv). As important as the Hebrew Vorlage remains for understanding the translation and respecting the reality of some degree of Hebrew interference in the translation produced, L. concludes that the translators endeavored to produce a Greek text that would generally read well for a Greek-speaking audience. Lee’s volume challenges views that regard the Greek translation of the Pentateuch as merely a crib for the underlying text, rather than a product designed to be appreciated in its own right...
Abstract This paper focuses on phonetic variation within the standard German language register of Austria. While the norm status and a high socio-symbolic value are attributed to certain lexical variants of standard language in Austria, the norm and usage status of characteristic phonetic properties remain unclear, due to lack of empirical analyses. By investigating the relation between standard language norms and “standard usage” ( Gebrauchsstandard ) in Austria, our study aims to close this research gap by using the example of unstressed ‹-ig›. The analyses are based on data gathered from 52 speakers from two generations, covering all Austrian dialect regions. Elicitation settings varied from strongly standardized tasks with a graphic or visual stimulus (reading aloud tasks, picture naming tasks) to translation tasks (translation from dialect into standard) with oral stimuli. The results demonstrate that although ‹-ig› is predominantly pronounced like [ɪk], (socio-)linguistic factors as phonetic context, part of speech, setting, gender and regional background influence the ‹-ig›-variation. In total, the data suggest that German speaking Austrians are situated in a conflict between transnationally diverging norms and intra-nationally varying model speakers of German.
Introduction. The linguistic norm is a defining feature of literary language at all stages of its development. This linguistic phenomenon is characterized by complexity and multidimensionality predetermined by internal and external conditionality of language development. It explainsinsufficient research of the language norm. Every language realizes the implicit and explicit norm. A codified component of the latter is referred to as a prescriptive norm and non-codified one is labeled as descriptive.Purpose. The article focuses on determining the status of prescriptive and descriptive norms in linguistics.Methods. The paper applies linguistic methods and techniques, including descriptive analysis, as well as methods of comparison, classification, and generalization.Results. The research shows that the descriptive norm creates selection of already existing speech facts, based on the usage and the prescriptive norm. The descriptive standard (Ist-Norm) in German is related to the rules of a written language, rules of pronunciation and oral language.The spelling norm of the German language is always prescriptive, and the orthoepic norm is, on the contrary, descriptive, except for the media and public style. The process of German orthoepic norm codification is fostered by two trends. The representatives of the first movement considerthe norm of pronunciation as an ideal and understand it as a prescriptive norm. Their opponents believe that the process of codification is descriptive. The prescriptive norm is ideal. Generally, the prescriptive approach covers the issues on standards in pronunciation, syntax, correctstylistic use of lexical means. The prescriptive norm is labelled as a “regulatory norm” because it has passed its own way, and is considered as fixed one in a form for a certain period of time and regulates the use of linguistic means in speech. The frame construction is part of the prescriptive norm (Soll-Norm) of the German language, is characterized by a high degree of representation in texts of different styles and performs structural-syntactic and communicative-pragmatic functions in the sentence.Conclusion. The descriptive norm represents various possibilities of a particular language system, accepted and implemented by the linguistic society of the world. Characteristic features of the descriptive norm are as follows: its determinism, development in the process of change and simultaneously with the change in the language system, variability. The properties of the prescriptive norm are codification, awareness and obligation for all speakers, taking into account social status. In German, prescriptive (prдskriptive) and descriptive (deskriptive) rules are called Regeln rules.
The article deals with the semantics of the term “populism” and its re-lexicalization via changing the meaning from neutral to negative. The author gives examples of the third-wave American populist leaders’ speeches, namely those made by Ugo Chaves, Nicolas Maduro, Evo Morales and Daniel Ortega, and reveals linguistic means of populism, as well as discursive strategies: proliferation (lexical loading) of key concepts, such as “pueblo”, “nación”, “patria” (“people”, “nation”, “motherland”), constructing discursive “I” in a pattern “I am my people”, the use of discursive strategies of polarization that helps political leaders delegitimize the opponent and construct the para-reality to legalize and symbolize self-power. The populist discourse is marked semantically by key words pueblo, nación, patria, special contextual coloring is designed with set expressions like la voz del pueblo (voice of the people), by forming occasional derivatives that break language norms, by actualizing oppositions “friend - enemy”, “acquaintance – stranger”, “people – outsider”, by applying to slogans and precedent phenomena. The participation of precedent phenomena in discursive strategies of populism is highlighted in the choice of precedent names (i.e. Simón Bolívar, Augusto César Sandino, Rubén Darío), it is directed at affiliating modern political leaders with prominent leader of the past, thus pointing to national values and providing legitemisy of the politicains in power.
Many of the criminal cases analysed by the Prosecution Office of the Federal District and Territories are repetitive and processing them can be streamlined by providing similar previous cases as template. We investigate the use of information retrieval techniques to enable automated identification of similar cases and evaluate if semantic search performs better than lexical search in the task of assisting legal opinion writing. As a proof of concept, syntactic indexing (TF-IDF and BM25) and semantic indexing (Latent Semantic Indexing - LSI and Latent Dirichlet Allocation - LDA) techniques were evaluated using document collections from two public prosecutors offices. In addition, we evaluate model enrichment with the use of recorded data about the cases, and also with the legal norm citations observed in documents. Baseline document collections sampled from full document collection from two public prosecutors offices were used for model evaluation utilizing Normalized Discounted Cumulated Gain (NDCG) as metric. We conclude that there is no significant performance difference between semantic and syntactic indexing techniques. In addition, we observe no significant performance gain with model enrichment. We chose the BM25 technique as more adequate because it has a good balance between performance and simplicity.
The determination of the semantic extent of lexical units which refer to the nomination of an individual has led to a more precise lexical image of the speech of the Svrljig area, but also to the understanding of the cultural identity of a single linguistic community. In a word, the formation of these lexical units is primarily based on visual perception (color, size, shape and the like). At the same time, their final form was also influenced by the socio-cultural specificities of the speech community which rested on the traditional human life values of people living in a rural environment. The volume and diversity of the nominations used to denote physical characteristics reflect a clear cultural specificity of the speech community in which everything that disrupts the ideal of a natural image and is not in accordance with the social norms is deemed negative.
Public communication in the contemporary world constitutes a particularly multifaceted phenomenon. The Internet offers unlimited possibilities of contact and public expression, locally and globally, yet exerts its power too, inducing the use of the Internet lingo, loosening language norms, and often encourages the use of a lingua franca, English in particular. This leads to linguistic choices that are liberating for some and difficult for others on ideological grounds, due to the norms of the discourse community, or simply because of insufficient language skills and linguistic means available. Such choices appear to particularly characterise post-colonial states, in which the co-existence of multiple local tongues with the language once imperially imposed and now owned by local users makes the web of repertoires especially complex. Such a case is no doubt India, where the use of English alongside the nationally encouraged Hindi and state languages stems not only from its historical past, but especially its present position enhanced not only by its local prestige, but also by its global status too, and also as the primary language of Online communication. The Internet, however, has also been recognised as a medium that encourages, and even revitalises, the use of local tongues, and which may manifest itself through the choice of a given language as the main medium of communication, or only a symbolic one, indicated by certain lexical or grammatical features as identity markers. It is therefore of particular interest to investigate how members of such a multilingual community, represented here by Hindi users, convey their cultural identity when interacting with friends and the general public Online, on social media sites. This study is motivated by Kachru’s (1983) classical study, and, among others, a recent discussion concerning the use of Hinglish (Kothari and Snell, eds., 2011). This research analyses posts generated by Hindi users on Facebook (private profiles and fanpages) and Twitter, where personalities of users are largely known, and on YouTube, where they are often hidden, in order to identify how the users mark their Indian identity. Investigated will be Hindi lexical items, grammatical aspects and word order, cases of code-switching, and locally coloured uses of English words and spelling conventions, with an aim to establish, also from the point of view of gender preferences, the most dominating linguistic patterns found Online.