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16504 papers
Introduction. The purpose of the article is the analysis of verbalization of maidenhood concepts in traditional culture. The materials of the study are dialect dictionaries, as well as the materials of dialectological expeditions conducted by Tomsk State University linguists from 1947 to nowadays in the dialects distribution territory of the Middle Ob Region. The use of this material allows us to explore the concept of maidenhood, taking into account the changes taking place in the dialect culture and caused by both linguistic and extralinguistic factors. Results. Concepts of maidenhood are objectified in the lexical and phraseological dialect units, nominating maidens and characterizing their behavior. In peasant culture, marriage was considered as the fulfillment of the main female life purpose. Therefore, society demonstrated the importance attached to the preservation of maiden honor. It was reflected in a number of stable combinations that denominate a virgin. Noncompliance with this form was a great disgrace for a girl and her parents. The loss of virginity and the birth of a child before marriage are characterized by units containing seme `shame‘. Zoomorphic metaphors are also used in dialect speech, indicating the comparison of extramarital relations with the animal world, in which the rules of human society do not operate. Marriage for a girl in traditional culture is perceived as a necessity, this fact is evidenced by the analysis of ritual lyrics. In dialectal folklore ditties are recorded with the intention of warning or recommendations not to marry. The use of a large number of verbs, the grammatical form of which reflects the lack of participation of the girl in the decision to marry is also characteristic. The analysis of the units nominating wedding ceremonies confirms the idea that marriage was economically beneficial and did not depend on emotional attachment. The wedding is treated as a ritual transition, initiating a girl to the status of a woman. At the same time, the transformation of the concept of maidenhood is shown due to social, historical and economic factors. Dialect speakers note a change of social norms. They condemn the behavior of modern girls, in relationships with the opposite sex before marriage, and the lack of a sense of shame for that matter. Dialect speakers also mention the disappearance or simplification of the wedding rite and the absence of legal relations between the spouses.
Some Remarks On the Development of Russian Prostorečie The paper provides a brief outline of Russian prostorečie (urban popular language), which is the supraregional language variety spoken by uneducated or half educated urban population, that doesn’t know the norms of standard language. Phonetic, morphosyntactic and lexical peculiarities of this language variety are illustrated by means of a real sample of Russian prostorečie: a letter written by an 80-year-old woman. The article also focuses attention on the development of a new prostorečie, which, with respect to old prostorečie, is characterized exclusively on lexical plane, and is the source by which slang and professional elements penetrate into the standard language.
The Routledge Handbook of language and culture represents a comprehensive study on the inextricable relationship between language and culture. It is structured into seven parts and 33 chapters. Part 1, Overview and historical background, by Farzad Sharifian, starts with an outline of the book and a synopsis of research on language and culture. The second chapter, John Leavitt’s Linguistic relativity: precursors and transformations discusses further the historical development of the concept of linguistic relativity, identifying different schools’ of thought views on the relation between language and culture. He also tries to demystify some misrepresentations held towards Boas, Sapir, and Whorf’ theories (pp. 24-26). Chapter 3, Ethnosyntax, by Anna Gladkova provides an overview of research on ethnosyntax, starting from the theoretical basis laid by Sapir and Whorf and investigates the differences between a narrow sense of ethnosyntax, which focuses on cultural meanings of various grammatical structures and a broader sense, which emphasises the pragmatic and cultural norms’ impact on the choice of grammatical structures. John Leavitt presents in the fourth chapter, titled Ethnosemantics, a historical account of research on meaning across cultures, introducing three traditions, i.e. ‘classical’ ethnosemantics (also referred to as ethnoscience or cognitive anthropology), Boasian cultural semantics (linguistically inspired anthropology) and Neohumboldtian comparative semantics (word-field theory, or content-oriented Linguistics). In Chapter 5, Goddard underlines the fact that ethnopragmatics investigates emic (or culture-internal) approaches to the use of different speech practices across various world languages, which accounts for the fact that there exists a connection between the cultural values or norms and the speech practices peculiar to a speech community. One of the key objectives of ethnopragmatics is to investigate ‘cultural key words’, i.e. words that encapsulate culturally construed concepts. The concept of ‘linguaculture’ (or languaculture) is tackled in Risager’s Chapter 6, Linguaculture: the language–culture nexus in transnational perspective. The author makes reference to American scholars that first introduced this notion, Paul Friedrich, who looks at language and culture as a single domain in which verbal aspects of culture are mingled with semantic meanings, and Michael Agar, for whom culture resides in language while language is loaded with culture. Risager himself brought forth a new global and transnational perspective on the concept of linguaculture, i.e. the use of language (linguistic practice) is seen as flows in people’s social networks and speech communities. These flows enhance as people migrate or learn new languages, in permanent dynamics. Lidia Tanaka’s Chapter 7, Language, gender, and culture deals with research on language, gender, and culture. According to her, the language-gender relationship has been studied by researchers from various fields, including psychology, linguistics, and anthropology, who mainly consider gender as a construct that preserves inequalities in society, with the help of language, too. Tanaka lists diachronically different approaches to language and gender, focusing on three specific ones: gender stereotyped linguistic resources, semantically, pragmatically or lexically designated language features (including register) and gender-based spoken discourse strategies (talking-time imbalances or interruptions). In Chapter 8, Language, culture, and context, Istvan Kecskes delves into the relationship between language, culture, and context from a socio-cognitive perspective. The author considers culture to be a set of shared knowledge structures that encapsulate the values, norms, and customs that the members of a society have in common. According to him, both language and context are rooted in culture and carriers of it, though reflecting culture in a different way. Language encodes past experience with different contexts, whereas context reflects present experience. The author also provides relevant examples of formulaic language that demonstrate the functioning of both types of context, within the larger interplay between language, culture, and context. Sara Miller’s Chapter 9, Language, culture, and politeness reviews traditional approaches to politeness research, with particular attention given to ‘discursive approach’ to politeness. Much along the lines of the previous chapter, Miller stresses the role of context in judgements of (im)polite language, maintaining that individuals represent active agents who challenge and negotiate cultural as well as linguistic norms in actual communicative contexts. Chapter 10, Language, culture, and interaction, by Peter Eglin focuses on language, culture and interaction from the perspective of the correspondence theory of meaning. According to him, abstracting language and culture from their current uses, as if they were not interdependent would not lead to an understanding of words’ true meaning. David Kronenfeld introduces in Chapter 11, Culture and kinship language, a review of research on culture and kinship language, starting with linguistic anthropology. He explains two formal analytic definitional systems of kinship terms: the semantic (distinctions between kin categories, i.e. father vs mother) and pragmatic (interrelations between referents of kin terms, i.e. ‘nephew’ = ‘child of a sibling’). Chapter 12, Cultural semiotics, by Peeter Torop deals with the field of ‘semiotics of culture’, which may refer either to methodological instrument, to a whole array of methods or to a sub-discipline of general semiotics. In this last respect, it investigates cultures as a form of human symbolic activity, as well as a system of cultural languages (i.e. sign systems). Language, as “the preserver of the culture’s collective experience and the reflector of its creativity” represents an essential component of cultural semiotics, being a major sign system. Nigel Armstrong, in Chapter 13, Culture and translation, tackles the interrelation between language, culture, and translation, with an emphasis on the complexities entailed by translation of culturally laden aspects. In his opinion, culture has a double-sided dimension: the anthropological sense (referring to practices and traditions which characterise a community) and a narrower sense, related to artistic endeavours. However, both sides of culture permeate language at all levels. Chapter 14, Language, culture, and identity, by Sandra Schecter tackles several approaches to research on language, culture, and identity: social anthropological (the limits at play in the social construction of differences between various groups of people), sociocultural (the interplay between an individual’s various identities, which can be both externally and internally construed, in sociocultural contexts), participatory-relational (the manner in which individuals create their social–linguistic identities). Patrick McConvell, in Chapter 15, Language and culture history: the contribution of linguistic prehistory reviews research in this field where historical linguistic evidence is exploited in the reconstruction and understanding of prehistoric cultures. He makes an account of research in linguistic prehistory, with a focus on proto- and early Indo-European cultures, on several North American language families, on Africa, Australian, and Austronesian Aboriginal languages. McConvell also underlines the importance of interdisciplinary research in this area, which greatly benefits from studies in other disciplines, such as archaeology, palaeobiology, or biological genetics. Part four starts with Ning Yu’s Chapter 16, Embodiment, culture, and language, which gives an account of theory and research on the interplay between language, culture, and body, as seen from the standpoint of Cultural Linguistics. Yu presents a survey of embodiment (in embodied cognition research) from a multidisciplinary perspective, starting with the rather universalistic Conceptual Metaphor Theory. On the other hand, Cultural Linguistics has concentrated on the role played by culture in shaping embodied language, as various cultures conceptualise body and bodily experience in different ways. Chapter 17, Culture and language processing, by Crystal Robinson and Jeanette Altarriba deals with research in the field of how culture influence language processing, in particular in the case of bilingualism and emotion, alongside language and memory. Clearly, the linguistic and cultural character of each individual’s background has to be considered as a variable in research on cognition and cognitive processing. Frank Polzenhagen and Xiaoyan Xia, in Chapter 18, Language, culture, and prototypicality bring forth a survey of prototypicality across different disciplines, including cognitive linguistics and cognitive psychology. According to them, linguistic prototypes play a critical part in social (re-)cognition, as they are socially diagnostic and function as linguistic identity markers. Moreover, individuals may develop ‘culturally blended concepts’ as a result of exposure to several systems of conceptual categorisation, especially in the case of L2 learning (language-contact or culture-contact situations). In Chapter 19, Colour language, thought, and culture, Don Dedrick investigates the issue of the colour words in different languages and how these influence cognition, a question that has been addressed by researchers from various disciplines, such as anthropology, linguistics, cognitive psychology, or neuroscience. He cannot but observe the constant debate in this respect, and he argues that it is indeed difficult to reach consensus, as colour language occasionally reveals effects of language on thought and, at other times, it is impervious to such effects. Chapter 20, Language, culture, and spatial cognition, by Penelope Brown
The Argot language is one of the standard varieties of language that is formed among young people or a group of delinquents. Each social group has its own terms and expressions that must be learned in order to enter that group. Argot language is not separate from the language. Rather, it is one of its various varieties. This language represents a heterogeneous society, with each group having an impact on language. One can argue beyond this, claiming that the difference between each Argot language and the language commonly depends on the group attribute that uses this Argot language. The more different these groups are, the more they use different language forms to establish and maintain a relationship with the linguistic community. Young people form a large part of the active population of our community and the tendency towards peers and differences with adults are important features of this group. They have a particular language system that consists of the norms, values, behaviors and the core of their subculture. It is a secret code and a special communication symbol that transmits messages and creates certain rules and behaviors. Therefore, young people have their own subculture and use special vocabulary. The use of these vocabulary by young people and their influence on the youth subculture has created a certain verbal and non-verbal communication among young people that requires a scientific review. Groups and circles of friends, SMS, social networking messages, television movies, virtual social media, print media such as fictional characters, borrowing from other languages, and other forms of creativity are the means for dissemination of these words. The purpose of this paper is to identify semantic relations in the secret language within the framework of the theory of constructivism. Constructive semantics is one of the most important methods of achieving analysis using structuralism theory. In this view, the network language is one of the systematic relationships. Structural meanings refer to what the equivalent of a semantic unit is and how they are connected. The constructive semantic label is usually limited to lexical semantics. One of the most fundamental and general principles of constructivist linguistics is that languages, systems, and sub-systems or their constituent levels –grammatical, lexical, and phoneme levels– are interdependent. An important aspect of lexical semantics is how semantic relations of vocabulary are with each other; in particular, the discovery of the four classes of semantic relations, opposition, hyponymy, synonymy, and member-collection is important. Semantic Relationship is the relationship between lexical categories with other vocabulary, which confronts the speaker with the choice of different lexical categories. This term has different types. In other words, the meaning of the semantic relation is that the language has a semantic structure and the words are related in groups. Of course, these groups are formed on the basis of the semantic relations between the words. According to the tradition of studying meaning, these relations are in the semantic system of language between concepts that at first glance may seem independent, but have a close connection with each other, which is sometimes impossible to distinguish them from one another. Conceptual relationships have two types. Some of them are substitutions, and the others are synthetic, or, according to the famous statement, according to the Saussure’s attitude, is a function of substitution and conjunction. The substitution relationships between concepts arise among members of a grammatical category and with their replacement. This category of conceptual relationships, typically and not necessarily, consists of words from various grammatical categories that together create well-formedness. In order to achieve the purpose of the article, we first discuss the categories of semantic, synonymy, polysemy, opposition, hyponymy, meronymy, collocation, portion-mass, member-collection, homophony and homography. After processing and identifying these relationships in the Argot language vocabulary derived from an interview of the 15-30 year old young people in Tehran subway, as well as the Persian Dictionary of Argot of Samai’s work, the frequency of each semantic relationship was determined. The sample size is 1507 words; it has been extracted by two methods of documenting the Persian Dictionary of Argot and a researcher-made interview with a Snowball Sampling method. After collecting and deletion, the words were classified according to their nature and meaning in fourteen semantic areas. These classes include tools and objects, automobiles, moods, ethics and behavior, secret communication, the condition of organs, numbers, organs, eating and drinking, people, actions, opiates, clothing and places. The information of each word includes the semantic domain, the concept, the lexical entry and the Encyclopedia meaning. In addition to identifying semantic domains, the concept of each lexical category was also identified. Because the creators of the Argot language vocabulary use or create these words in an attempt to keep secrets hidden within a group of their inherent knowledge, the words reference may be different from these concepts. Then, the semantic relations of lexical data in each area were determined by qualitative content analysis method. The question of this research is if semantic relations exist in the secret language and what the relationship between the highest and lowest frequencies of semantic relations is. The results of the derivation of semantic analysis show that the highest and lowest lexical frequencies belong to the domains of people and clothing, respectively. Also, synonymy with the frequency of 63.05% has the highest semantic and homography with the frequency of 0.11% has the least semantic relation. The high frequency of synonymy relation in the vocabulary of this language represents the main reason for the use of Argot language; that is, to hide the meaning of these words. If these meanings are revealed to others, new terms replaces the previous words.
The history of legal lexis dates back to the ancient times of ancient peoples. The study of legal language enables the reconstruction of Indo-European ritual-legal ancients at verbal, linguistic levels. Archaic societies had no legal culture, instead, the norms of customary law of ancient societies were referred to as “pre-law”, which included syncretism of law, religion, myth, poetry, and morality. The syncretic ritual and legal consciousness of the ancient peoples in the pre-state period and in the early state formations has its specific reflection in a language that receives such a definition as “the language of law”. The system of “language of law” of Indo-European peoples is partly outlined in today’s scientific survey by describing changes in the semantics of legal lexis in the Indo-European languages, based on the analysis of the distinguished evolutionary models of semantics (EMS) in the Germanic, Slavonic and Iranian languages. The evolutionary model of semantics is a method of inquiry and a procedural scheme for explaining the history of legal meaning. 79 EMS were distinguished during the research, showing the genesis of the meaning 'power', 'lord', 'to rule', 'law', '(religious) law', 'pledge', '(blood) feud', 'court', 'judge'. Using data of the distinguished EMS, that clearly shows the change in the semantic volume of a word, a specific type of change in the meaning of legal lexis in the lexical and semantic system of the Indo-European languages was identified for each EMS, namely, expanding, narrowing (specializing), amelioration or pejoration of the meaning of the word. The study found that quantitatively the semantic derivation of the Indo-European legal terminology most experienced the type of narrowing of the meaning of the word, which, according to the researchers, belongs to the semantic universals. Metaphorical and metonymic changes in the meaning in the legal lexis of the Indo-European languages were also highlighted, that will need further study.
On the results of the linguistic analysis of the text of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the requirements that are imposed by legal discourse to the language of legal documents the authors reveal a set of obligatory characteristics of the language of the legal document, including definiteness, accuracy, clearness, stylistic neutrality, and language correctness. Application of these characteristics to assessing the quality of the text of Russian Constitution lead to finding some contextual gaps which might cause difficulties in understanding of some provisions in the basic law of the country. Violations of the accuracy and clarity of statements include those provisions of the Constitution in which lexical units are implemented in different meanings. In such cases, the distortion of meaning is possible at the stage of understanding (interpretation) of the verbal form. The articles of the Constitution also reveal a violation of clarity, which is accompanied by legal and linguistic uncertainty. The article provides examples of formulations that do not comply with the rules and norms of the use of language means in legal acts, as well as proposed ways to overcome these inconsistencies. It is argued that the development and application of a special linguistic methodology focused on communicative and rhetorical analysis of legally significant texts will allow more effective linguistic interpretation of normative legal acts, including the Constitution of the Russian Federation, as well as ensure uniformity of their application.
The aim of this paper is to compare a southern Irish English speaker who lives in New Zealand with what literature in the field portrays as typical speech for the Irish variety of English. This paper does not discuss the historical or contemporary reasons for why Irish English is as it is today. This paper has limited its analysis to the reasons why the native Irish speaker of English differs from other norms, and comments only on differences. The southern Irish English variety has unique phonological, morphological, lexical, and syntactical features, as well as a distinguishing intonation and stress pattern. Only phonological differences are examined here. Four main aspects of Irish English are investigated; the /w/ ~ /hw/ contrast; the contrast of /t/ with /θ/; the STRUT /ʌ / and FOOT /ʊ/ vowels (the GOOSE vowel will only be looked at in the context of a variable with STRUT and FOOT; and the PRICE / ai / and CHOICE / Ɔɪ / diphthongs. The analysis of these sounds shows evidence that there are competing influences on an individual’s conscious or subconscious phonological choices; pride in one’s language and heritage might compete with one’s aspiring social status and professional ambitions. Together these could be further influenced by the linguistic environments one has been in or in which one currently finds oneself. These competing forces lead to some expected but also some unexpected departures from other norms.
This article is devoted to problems of interpretation in law, including methods of interpretation. The general nature of rules, inability to specify it absolutely all specific life situation is an objective reason for interpretation. The question of how to interpret law is important in the doctrine of interpretation. They give us an idea of the mechanism and tools for such activities. Under the method of interpretation in legal literature understand specific techniques and knowledge of the rules necessary to clarify the interpretation of the subject real content of legal norms. It should be noted that among the scientists are still not developed a common approach to determining the specific methods and rules clarify the law, their union in ways of interpretation. The author of the article considers the grammatical, logical, systematic, historical interpretation and their application in law. The grammatical way (verbal, philology, literal, the lexical – variants of the name) the most common. The logical interpretation – an interpretation of a legal act on its contents using the laws of logic. The existence of systemic predetermined systematic interpretation of law. Interpretation of the individual acts in law, including contracts made by the same means. When using systematic interpretation be accounted into other parts of the contract, with the provisions of the law, and the use of historical – documents the parties prior to its conclusion. Consequently the competent authorities that carry out law enforcement activities is not entitled to refuse the dispute through obscurity legal standard. There are no clearly defined rules of these methods. They can be used all at once or can be selected for one or more individual discretion, depending on the possibility of achieving the objective interpretation. Thus if the grammatical and logical interpretation repelled from the texts themselves, the systematic and historical methods rely on elements external to them. Disclaimer enforcer of the whole gamut resulting in a one-sided application of the law. The interpretation is based on the premise that the system of law should be free from contradictions and each provision should be in harmony with the whole system.
There has been much research on the nature of dialogues in the Bible. While the research literature abounds with qualitative analyses on these dialogues, they are rarely corroborated on statistics from the entire text. In this article, we leverage a corpus of annotated direct speech in the New Testament, as well as recent advances in automatic speaker and listener identification, to present a quantitative study on dialogue structure in the Gospels. The contributions of this article are three-fold. First, we quantify a variety of features that are widely used in characterizing dialogue structure—including dialogue length, turn length, and the initiation and conclusion of a dialogue—and show how they distinguish between different Gospels. Second, we compare our statistics with qualitative comments in the New Testament research literature, and extend them to cover the entirety of the Gospels. Most significantly, we gauge the feasibility of applying our approach to other literary works, by measuring the amount of errors that would be introduced by automatically identified dialogues, speakers and listeners.
The problem of language accuracy in publicistic texts hasn’t lost its actuality due to the great number of deviations from the language norms. The analysis of journalistic materials, which deal with the cultural and educational topics, has demonstrated that the language norms are broken in them rather often. The objective of the research is to systematize the most frequently used mistakes in the journalistic materials on cultural-linguistic topics, and to define the reasons of their occurrence. For reaching this objective 85 articles and interviews devoted to the issues of language policy and culture of speech taken from popular Internet publicistic sources were chosen and analyzed. The number of collected mistakes (anormative lexis) is over 400. The following methods were used during the research of the selected material: the method of entire selection for choosing the texts and collecting the examples of anormative lexis from cross-media sources; the descriptive method for defining the essence of deviation from the language norm and for finding the reasons of this phenomenon; the methods of analysis and synthesis for systematizing and classifying the selected anormative lexis. The fulfilled research allows to assert that the publicistic texts devoted to cultural-linguistic issues contain less number of norm deviations than texts of other thematic spheres. Thus, they contain less number of mistakes in usage of paronyms, there were no cases of inappropriate usage of little known terms and rarely used words. However, due to the influence of the Russian language the frequency of word-building and semantic loan translation is still high. It can be explained by the lack of clear delimitation of two languages in the consciousness of texts’ authors. The permanent improvement of language competence of journalists and editors, paying attention to the complicated examples of word spelling and to the usage of definite lexical units will promote thorough improvement of language culture of mass media staff.
The volume collects articles which discuss complexity, conventionality and creativity in the English language from perspectives as diverse as specialised discourse, language teaching and learning, language varieties, lexical creativity, stylistics, knowledge dissemination through the media and audio-visual translation. It offers a multifaceted picture of the ways in which opposing forces exerted by conventionality and creativity contribute to shaping all levels of the linguistic system. The interpretive paradigm is offered by the theory of complex systems, a rich research framework attempting to describe and explain the dynamics which emerge in the many forms of situational adaptation of natural systems. Norms and conventions are, in fact, constantly exploited and manipulated through the creative behaviour of language users. This may lead to unpredictable synchronic effects and variation and, ultimately, to diachronic innovation.
The article presents the results of an original research into a hypothetical dependence of translation techniques selection on the term structure in the target text. The data was obtained following the analysis of translation techniques applied to render into Ukrainian 932 English terminological word combinations related to Teaching Foreign Languages and Applied Linguistics. It was established that word combinations constitute the most numerous category in the English terminology corpus selected for the analysis. It was also found that the share of two-component terminological word combinations considerably supersedes the share of lexical units with a larger amount of words. Adjective-Noun and Noun-Noun models turned out to be the most frequent models the two-component word combinations are based on in the said sphere. In the category of the two-component word combinations, the share of adjective-headed lexical units amounts to 52%, while the Adjective-Noun model accounts for half (49%) of them. The share of the noun-headed word combinations, where the Noun-Noun model predominates, is 37%. The rest of the models have a tendency to follow the adjective-headed word combinations in their behaviour. The analysis of the correlation of translation techniques selected to render into Ukrainian the Language Pedagogy English terminological word combinations allowed to assume that the choice of the techniques is dependent on their structure. The two-component adjective-headed word combinations tend to be translated by means of calque. However, in rendering the two-component noun-headed word combinations the share of calque diminishes by half. The increase of the amount of components in a word combination is accompanied by a sharp fall in the share of calque and the simultaneous rise in the proportion of transformations, dominated by transposition, often in combination with word addition or deletion. The research results do not give any ground to assume that the selection of translation techniques in rendering English terminological word combinations related to Teaching Foreign Languages and Applied Linguistics into Ukrainian has any specific features as compared to other specialized areas, because the said results are quite similar to those observed in other spheres of human activity. Like in those spheres, calquing is used if the principles of the word combination structure in English and Ukrainian coincide, while transformations occur in case of their discrepancies. Words are added into the target text to ensure a greater degree of rendering the meaning of the term from the source text, while the reason for the word deletion is the redundancy of the word combination in the source text, i.e. the possibility to render its meaning in the target text with fewer words. Transposition is applied to meet the target language norms, and the simultaneous use of several types of transformation is explained by the desire to comply with several requirements mentioned above.
Deceiving participants about the goals or content of a study is permitted in psychological research but is largely banned in economics journals and subject pools. This ban is intended to protect a public good: If experiencing deception causes participants to be suspicious in future studies, and suspicion meaningfully influences their behavior, then the entire field suffers. We report a survey of psychologists’ and economists’ attitudes toward deception (N = 568) and a large, nondeceptive multisite study in which we measured participants’ histories, suspicion levels, and behavior in four common economic tasks (N = 636). Economists reported more negative attitudes toward deceptive methods and greater support for the deception ban than did psychologists. The results of the behavioral study, however, do not support the “public good” argument for banning deception about the goals or content of a research study: Participants’ present suspicion was not clearly related to past experiences of deception, and there were no consistent behavioral differences between suspicious and credulous participants. We discuss the implications of these results for the ongoing debate regarding the acceptability of deceptive research methods.
The article focuses on the formation of future Ukrainian language and literature teachers stylistic competence. Ukrainian and foreign linguodidactic researchers achievements are theoretical generalized. The attempts to determine the membership of students-philologists stylistic competence are analyzed. Based on the analysis and synthesis of scientific sources, the notion of stylistic competence of the future Ukrainian language and literature teacher as a multicomponent and dynamic personality ability is learned, which is the result of teaching the Ukrainian language Stylistics, in particular the mastering of knowledge in Stylistics, the mastery of stylistic skills and abilities, the presence of motivational and value attitudes, and behavioral norms, as well as their experience in designing stylistically completed text in oral and written forms, used I linguistic resources for the purpose, conditions and targeted communication guidelines, the implementation of research exploration and future educational activities. The components of stylistic competence according to psychological factors are determined by motivational, knowledge (cognitive), activity, value, emotional, and reflective components. According to the content it is necessary to speak about the generalistic (Stylistics general concepts and categories assimilation) and level-style phonetic-stylistic, lexical-stylistic (lexical-stylistic and phraseological-stylistic), grammatical-stylistic (word-and-stylistic, morphological-stylistic, syntactically-stylistic) components. According to the activity features stylistic competence components are characterized: linguistic, communicative, self-educational, scientific research, methodical.
The article deals with the concept of I. Franko on the development and functioning of the Ukrainian language and its dialects. On the basis of works of the author’s works "Literary language and dialects" and "Speak of the wolf – say for the wolf", modern views on the problem of national and literary language have been formed. The historical-stylistic approach allows to comprehensively analyze Franko’s views on key linguistic concepts – literary language and literary norm as well as a tangent to it – dialectal speech, linguistic flair, the culture of speech, etc. The role of I. Franko in the language disputes at the end of the 19th century is being outlined, in particular his work assesses and determines the role of the figure in the views of contemporary linguistic problems, the place of dialects in the language system, the dynamics of language processes at the end of 19th and beginning of 20th centuries, new trends in the development of lexical and phraseological fund of the Ukrainian language, the enrichment of the stylistic resource of the Ukrainian language, the role of socio-political processes on the state and quality of the Ukrainian language, etc. The author makes a digression to the life and work of I. Franko, specifically to scientific contacts with V. Jagić, J. Collares, M. Grushevsky which allowed to trace the interdependence in the problems of the formation and functioning of the literary language in Serbia and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia, and Macedonia. Consideration of the "single Ukrainian language" for Franko is a key issue addressed in the works of both scientific and journalistic nature. It is important that both Franko and his contemporaries-Slavists, saw in the unity of the language a mental-national character of Ukrainians, which is confirmed by the epistolary heritage of the scientist and can be promising for further analysis of current problems of the Ukrainian language past and present.
ABSTRAK Bahasa merupakan sebuah media perantara bagi manusia untuk saling berkomunikasi. Dimungkinkan adanya perbedaan bahasa terhadap gender yang berbeda dalam hal pilihan kata atau bagaimana bahasa itu disampaikan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa lexical hedges tindak tutur representatif pemeran utama perempuan pada film Sweet 20 dan Orang Kaya Baru. Pemilihan film-film tersebut disebabkan karena film-film tersebut dimainkan oleh pemeran utama perempuan. Film Sweet 20 ditulis oleh penulis skenario wanita sedangkan Film Orang Kaya Baru ditulis oleh penulis skenario pria. Data-data di penelitian ini dianalisis menggunakan analisis wacana dan teori (S) Setting and scene, (P) Participants, (E) End, (A) Act sequence, (K) Key, (I) Instrumentalities, (N) Norms of interaction and interpretation, (G) Genre, Hymes (1974). Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat empat dari 7 kategori lexical hedges yang ditemukan dalam kedua Film tersebut, yaitu Modal Auxiliary Verb, If Clause, Approximator of Degree, Quantity, and Time dan Introductory Phrases. Dari Film Sweet 20 ditemukan 49 dari 149 ujaran yang mengandung lexical hedges dalam tindak tutur representatif, sedangkan dalam Film Orang Kaya Baru ditemukan 16 dari 68 ujaran yang mengandung lexical hedges dalam tindak tutur representatif. Penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa terdapat 32,89% lexical hedges yang digunakan oleh pemeran utama wanita di Film Sweet 20, dan terdapat 23,53% lexical hedges yang digunakan oleh pemeran utama wanita di Film Orang Kaya Baru. Kemudian, menggunakan teori SPEAKING disimpulkan bahwa Film Sweet 20 memiliki latar dan mitra tutur yang beragam dibandingkan dengan Film Orang Kaya Baru yang berlatar di tempat yang hampir semuanya sama dan dengan mitra tutur yang sama pula. ABSTRACT Language is a medium of communication for every human being. It may differ between different gender in terms of the words or how it is delivered. This study is aimed at analyzing lexical hedges in the representative speech act of the main woman character, especially in Sweet 20 and Orang Kaya Baru Movie. The selection of this movie is because it is written by a woman writer. Therefore, the focus of this study is on the lexical hedges which are well-known as woman language. This study employs qualitative research method. This study aims to analyze the lexical hedges of the speech acts of the female lead actors in the film Sweet 20 and Orang Kaya Baru. The selection of these films was caused by the films being played by the female lead. The Sweet 20 film is written by a female screenwriter while the film Orang Kaya Baru is written by a male screenwriter. The data in this study were analyzed using discourse analysis and theory (S) Settings and scenes, (P) Participants, (E) End, (A) Act sequences, (K) Key, (I) Instrumentalities, (N) Norms of interaction and interpretation, (G) Genre, Hymes (1974). The results of this study indicate that there are four of the 7 categories of lexical hedges found in the two movies, namely Capital Auxiliary Verb, If Clause, Approximator of Degree, Quantity, and Time, as well as Introductory Phrases. From the Sweet 20 Movie, 49 of 149 utterances containing lexical hedges were found in representative speech acts, while in the Orang Kaya Baru Movie, 16 of 68 utterances containing lexical hedges were found in representative speech acts. This study concludes that there were 32.89% of the lexical hedges used by the female lead in Sweet 20 Movie, and 23.53% of the lexical hedges used by the female lead in Orang Kaya Baru Movie. Then, through the use of SPEAKING theory, it was concluded that the Sweet 20 Movie has a more diverse settings and speech partners compared to the Orang Kaya Baru movie in which almost all the places are the same and so are the speech partners.
The aim of this paper was to identify which psycholinguistic variables are better predictors of performance for healthy participants in a picture naming task and in a picture categorization task. A correlation analysis and a Path analysis were carried out. The correlation analysis showed that naming accuracy and naming latency are significant and positively correlated with lexical frequency and conceptual familiarity variables, whereas they are negatively correlated with H index. Reaction times in the categorization task were negatively correlated with lexical frequency and conceptual familiarity variables and positively correlated with visual complexity variable. The Path analysis showed that subjective lexical frequency and H index are the better predictors for picture naming task. In picture categorization task, for reaction times, the better predictor variables were subjective lexical frequency, conceptual familiarity and visual complexity. 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Age of Acquisition Norms for a Large Set of Object Names and Their Rel
The article deals with the issues of applying mind maps to develop foreign language communicative competence in training future foreign language teachers. According to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, Communicative Competence is divided into: Linguistic Competence: it refers to the ability of producing utterances in an efficient way in all its grammatical levels. It includes such competences as: lexical, grammatical, semantic, phonologic and orthographic competence. Sociolinguistic Competence: it is the ability of understanding and producing different utterances in different contexts of use where different factors play an important role, such as the relationship between participants, their situation, etc. Aspects to take into account here are social relationships markers, politeness norms, popular wisdom expressions, register differences, dialect and accent differences, etc. Pragmatic Competence: It makes reference to the ability of acting efficiently in a language taking into account grammatical forms and meaning to complete a text in different communicative events.One of the effective methods for the development of foreign language communicative competence is Mind Mapping. The Mind Mapping process involves a unique combination of imagery, colour and visual-spatial arrangement which is proven to significantly improve recall when compared to conventional methods of note-taking and learning by rote. The mind map format is becoming an alternative to the traditional way of making notes, storing large quantities of educational information by a student for further use. Mind maps are graphically expressed processes of multidimensional thinking; they show the hierarchical interrelation of ideas. They’re great for team use, as well as for all types of speech activity.Application of mind maps is fully efficient for the development of foreign language communicative competence in training future foreign language teachers.
The article presents the results of the experimental verification of the effectiveness of the methodology of differentiated formation of English lexical competence in reading of future linguists, the planning, preparation and conduct of the experiment are described as well as the criteria and norms for evaluating lexical knowledge and receptive skills in reading; experimental verification of the effectiveness of author's methodology and developed methodological recommendations are also proved. The author's methodology is implemented in the model of the organization of the learning process, which covers the differentiation of learning objectives and expected results, teaching objects and subjects of training; learning elements; content, methods, forms of organization and control of students' educational activities. The micro-module is set as the minimum unit of the education organization. It comprises 6 hours of in-class work and 6 hours of independent work. It is thematic and covers about 100 new words, according to which the sentences, the phrasal unity, the texts are chosen, and the subsystem of exercises and tasks is organized. The model is synchronized: students perform the same type of work at the same time, but the content of the exercises and the nature of the tasks varies. It is found out that the effectiveness of the formation of English lexical competence in reading of future linguists is high, provided that differentiated groups are created according to the criterion of learning (low / sufficient / high); the objectives and expected learning outcomes for each differentiated group is given; provided that the content and nature of the exercises and tasks, the control over their implementation are monitored, and the adherence to the phases of the learning process is controlled. To assess students, the following criteria were taken: the correctness of understanding of the lexical unit, its denotative and connotative meaning in the speech; correctness of content communication establishing; degree of understanding of the implications and concepts in the text; extralinguistic information related to the lexical unit; degree of understanding of the content and meaning of the text; correctness and depth of search / analysis when solving lexicological tasks. We were able to trace the positive dynamics of the experimental group as a whole and each differentiated subgroup (depending on the initial level of learning) in particular. The reliability of the results of the experiment were proved by the Mann-Whitney method
Recent scholarship suggests that social norms are becoming more permissive of prejudicial talk about immigrants in the United States (Crandall, Miller, & White, 2018). This is in keeping with trends observed internationally (e.g., Krzyżanowski, 2018; Vollmer & Karakayali, 2018). Past studies of discourse about immigration in the United States have identified a number of patterns — most notably those relating immigrants to threat (e.g., Santa Ana, 2002) — though some have found patterns framing immigration as beneficial (e.g., Strauss, 2012). This study explores discursive patterns about immigrant education in online comments from American newspapers. It focuses on change exhibited by exploring salient lexical and thematic patterns in 2016 comments relative to such patterns in 2009 comments. Using a corpus linguistics design, keyword, thematic, and other analytical techniques were applied to identify and describe the most prominent new patterns in the 2016 comments. Seven themes, through which immigration was framed negatively, emerged as new and salient in 2016. The article also includes discussion of cross-thematic patterns (e.g., a zero-sum framework) identified in the analysis.
Abstract Gothic is a null subject language. The binder of an anaphor can be a null subject. Binding requires asymmetrical c-command. Possessive sein- can be a syntactic or discourse anaphor. Gothic may attest the beginning of the Germanic two-reflexive system. The simple reflexive, without silba (self), is productive in anticausative structures. Verbal prefixes alter meaning, lexical, or grammatical aspect. Ga- has numerous other functions, including definiteness and temporal completion. The nonpast participle functions as a relative clause substitute and in absolute constructions. In the absence of switch reference, infinitives are the norm with modal and control verbs and purposives after verbs of motion (otherwise + du). The accusative with a participle or infinitive can be a matrix object or embedded subject. Accusative and infinitive depends on case from the matrix verb. The infinitive is usually wisan (to be) as an expansion of a small clause. Relative clauses require the complementizer ei (that). Verbs whose complements are factual or realizable are typically in the indicative. Those that do not allow a full range of independent tenses in the complement clause, or whose complements are not realized, are only potentially realized, or deal with possible worlds or alternate states of reality, trigger a shift to the optative, which has a number of independent uses as well.
The processes of globalization and the world community, as well as the role and place of Ukraine and the People's Republic of China on the geopolitical map of the world dictate the need for strong scientific, political, economic, cultural, energy contacts that will lead to the progress of both countries, to the creation and development of new technologies, new economic and humanitarian relations. This requires the training of a large number of skilled Chinese language specialists and experts.The phonetics of the Chinese language is extremely important for the learning of the language as a whole, because the Chinese language has a special typological characteristic - the presence of a tone that performs distinctive-perceptual and distinctive-significative functions. Mastering Chinese, and in particular lexical units (as key in communication), can only be conditioned by the ability to distinguish and correctly reproduce a tone. However, the study of phonetics is not limited to articulation skills, but involves the students mastering rhythmic-intonational models, which also have semantic nuances and are important in terms of the implementation of speech pragmatics.The study describes the experimental verification of the effectiveness of teaching methods of future philologists of Chinese phonetics, as well as substantiates and confirms the choice of the study hypothesis. The criteria and norms for evaluating the Chinese linguistic phonetic competence of future synologists are outlined. Methods and materials, plan and structure, and duration of the experiment are determined. In addition, examples of tasks and the ultimate goal of their implementation were given.Organizational and content aspects of students' experimental learning are covered. Post-experimental sections were performed, the corresponding results of the effectiveness of the created methodology of teaching phonetics of Chinese language were presented. For clearer perception, the results of the sections were made in the table
Instructors at most career levels can agree there is irony in our expectations of students’ writing abilities. While we want our students to write well, and often bemoan their abilities, relatively few of us actually teach writing skills (Guilford 20012001, Robertson 20042004, Reynolds and Thompson 20112011). The real paradox, according to Reynolds and Thompson, is that while writing and associated communication skills are fundamental to most careers in ecology, “the teaching of writing is not central to science education” (Reynolds and Thompson 20112011). Few undergraduate biology courses “make explicit what most scientists agree […] that comprehension of primary scientific papers and communication of scientific concepts are two of the most important skills” students must learn (Brownell et al. 20132013). It would be easy to blame the lack of writing instruction in science courses on associated instructional challenges, but there are likely more straightforward reasons why ecologists do not emphasize writing skill development in their courses: Bean (20112011), an academic, consultant, and writing program administrator, adds to the list: In 2011, Bean published Engaging Ideas: The Professor's Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom. In it, he productively counters these reasons for reluctance on the part of academic educators. The rest of this article will focus on some of the highlights from Engaging Ideas and associated scholarship that may be most immediately valuable to university science instructors. A rarity in a market flooded with books advising on how to become a better writer, Engaging Ideas emphasizes how to become a better writing instructor. In the early chapters, Bean outlines the research and theory underpinning current best practices in writing pedagogy and the scholarship of rhetoric and composition. The rest of Engaging Ideas is an immensely accessible, cross-curricular, writing instruction how-to book. It is also one specifically calibrated for the busy academic instructor. Consistent with current research on science writing instruction (and writing instruction more generally), Bean takes a “writing across the curriculum” approach which (1) discredits many of the myths obstructing science-related writing instruction efforts and (2) provides accessible and actionable recommendations for how we can enhance science learning through writing skill development in our own classrooms. Bean has taught and studied cross-disciplinary writing since 1976, and his tone is collegial and reasonable. He acknowledges, and is intimately familiar with, the challenges facing instructors throughout academia. His book is an explicit invitation to collaborate on the important work of developing students who can think and write critically. Bean's invitation is well-founded and timely. Results of a recent, informal, non-representative poll of readers of a well-regarded ecology blog bear this out (Merkle 20182018). Of 97 respondents, 77% (75/97) feel they should teach writing more than they do. Perhaps surprisingly, small class sizes, advanced courses, and TA availability were not the primary reasons people do not teach writing. However, other time-based reasons were as follows: Lack of time for grading time-intensive assignments (70%; 42/60) was the dominant reason, along with lack of time to support students (60%; 36/60). Lack of writing instruction (30%; 18/60) followed. The literature documents additional reasons. During a review of faculty perspectives on the importance of academic writing and instructional responsibility, Wei Zhu found, “much of what students need to write, particularly in upper division undergraduate and graduate level courses, is specifically tied to their disciplines” (2004). However, many professors perceive writing instruction responsibility as secondary to content knowledge (2004). Worse, Jackson et al. found that, among the faculty they surveyed, no academic science faculty felt they bore “any of the responsibility for developing discourse competence in students” (Jackson et al. 20062006). Essentially, Bean argues, we often pose our students reading and writing problems in a dialect they have not yet mastered (Bean 20112011), without feeling responsibility for helping them learn the dialect. Jackson et al. further highlight the issue of mismatched reading versus expected writing output. The undergraduate science courses Jackson et al. studied emphasized textbook readings, despite the primary written discourse of science taking place in academic peer-reviewed articles and the majority of assignments being article-esque laboratory reports (2006). This is a surmountable issue. Julie A. Reynolds and her colleagues hypothesize that the reluctance of STEM faculty “to incorporate writing in their courses derives largely from a lack of awareness of the research on the effectiveness of [writing teaching methods], since most published findings are in journals not regularly read by STEM faculty and the majority of studies use methods unfamiliar to most scientists” (Reynolds et al. 20122012). We can do something about this, by reading up on this literature. We can also reach across campus to our colleagues in English and Rhetoric and Composition Departments as well as the experts running our campus writing centers. Stepping out of our disciplinary box in this way can be mutually productive (e.g., Heard 20162016). Further, Melissa Kosinski-Collins and Susannah Gordon-Messer provide a case study for how to overcome misconceptions based on lack of familiarity with best practices in writing instruction. Cosinski-Collins and Gordon-Messer incorporated writing assignments of varying lengths throughout multi-session biology laboratories. They observed considerable improvement in both students’ comprehension of processes and their ability to articulate experiment design, execution, and results (20102010). Throughout Engaging Ideas, Bean uses examples akin to Cosinski-Collins and Gordon-Messer's efforts. And these three authors are not alone in asserting that “integrating writing and critical thinking components into a course can increase the amount of subject matter students actually learn.” However, Bean's particular contribution is in articulating both how these components contribute to subject matter mastery and how to get students to that point. For example, he discourages using quizzes and lecturing about assigned readings in favor of approaches such as (1) confirming that some texts are challenging, (2) assigning material not covered in class, (3) reducing the number of readings, and (4) developing and assigning reading guides. Commonly in some disciplines, reading guides are question sets that “define key terms with special disciplinary meanings, fill in needed cultural knowledge, explain the rhetorical context of the reading, illuminate the rhetorical purpose of genre conventions, and ask critical questions for students to consider as they progress through the text” (Bean 20112011). Furthermore, Bean admonishes us not to confuse the draft-like nature of examination essays with the potential polish of revised writing. In particular, excessive “worrying about spelling, grammar, and structure when you are trying to discover and clarify ideas can shut down any writer's creative energy.” To frame this point, Bean paraphrases P. Hartwell's insightful and useful grammar categories, which organize writing and speaking into the following: (1) native grammar learned in childhood, (2) academic and scientific study of grammar, (3) Standard Written English (which Bean points out is a prestige dialect), (4) parts-of-speech grammar, and (5) stylistic grammar (e.g., Strunk and White's Elements of Style). Importantly, Bean explains the documented detrimental effects of error-seeking and fixating on sentence-level errors. He provides insight into why we should not prioritize grammar. He couples this advice with a series of recommendations for how to shift grading, correction, and students’ own goals toward clarity, organization, and self-correction instead of “handbook grammar” perfection (Bean 20112011). Bean also frames the grammar issue in historical and socio-political lights, and gives particular emphasis to an argument shared by other writing instruction scholars (Bean 20112011). That is, ecology instructors (and indeed all writing-related instructors) should aim for writing skills that enable students to be actively intellectual citizens, rather than enshrining critical writing and thinking exclusively within the purview of academia (Harris 20122012). Bean asserts that it is how our language is structured, and a lack of complex reading experience, which impedes the production of writing that “is both a process of doing critical thinking and a product that communicates the results of critical thinking.” Make no mistake; Bean does not recommend teaching science writing as creative writing (although there are fine examples of how this synthesis can be powerful and productive, e.g., Skillen and Bowne 20142014). However, Bean is explicit: We can easily and inadvertently squelch students’ enthusiasm for thinking and writing about ecology by forcing them to adhere to rules and processes that we ourselves do not even follow (Bean 20112011). Bean further cautions us against assuming our simply need to be drilled on grammar, in order to execute an articulate and insightful laboratory report or research paper. He cites one study of American English speakers who, when asked to analyze new information by writing about it, “experienced partial or total linguistic collapse…Grammatical, lexical, and syntactic skills they seemed to have mastered disintegrated. Their papers were nearly incomprehensible” (Bean 20112011). “It may well be,” Bean hypothesizes, “that competence in editing and correctness is a late-developing skill that blossoms only after students begin taking pride in their writing and seeing themselves as having ideas important enough to communicate” (Bean 20112011). Other research suggests such skill development is also contingent upon students fully understanding the importance of writing for their own professional work outside of college (Guilford 20012001). Substantiating this premise, Bean cites cognitive research which indicates “that the frontal lobes of the brain, which seldom reach full maturity until age twenty-three to thirty, are needed for complex writing tasks that require writers first to wrestle with advanced, domain-specific knowledge and then to read their emerging texts from the audience's perspective” (Bean 20112011). In essence, we are asking students to do things their brains are not yet mature enough to do on their own. Throughout Engaging Ideas, Bean demonstrates both the pitfalls of leaving students to their own devices and the feasibility of us helping them meet our expectations. Shifting the focus from grammatical error to “writing as thinking” frees us and our students to focus on articulating the big ecological ideas we want them to appreciate, synthesize, and retain. Even so, Bean's lasting contribution to academic ecology instructors will not just be to emphasize students’ use of content versus merely acquiring content and using commas correctly. Engaging Ideas’ most essential contribution regards how students actually learn new information. He writes: “As cognitive research has shown […], to assimilate a new concept, learners must link it back to a structure of known material, determining how a new concept is both similar to and different from what the learner already knows. The more that unfamiliar material can be linked to the familiar ground of personal experience and already existing knowledge, the easier it is to learn” (Bean 20112011). So, our students will more readily connect to complex theories of speciation and conspecific competition if they are invited, through writing assignments, to make connections between these processes and the biological knowledge they already possess. Or better yet, students may learn to write and think more compellingly through making analogies between their own personal experiences and these foundational ecological principles. Bean suggests several ways to facilitate these past experience–new knowledge connections: (1) Students are assigned to explain the concept in writing to someone who has never heard of it (perhaps a relative or friend); (2) students are provided data and methods from a research article and directed to write the introduction and conclusion, according to disciplinary norms; (3) students are provided templates with fill-in-the-blank spaces designed to teach specific, formal writing structures expected in the discipline; (4) students are prompted to write short, summary-response essays about articles or course lectures. If organized in a sequential fashion, these assignments can also build students’ confidence in their capacity to write longer texts that meet disciplinary expectations (Bean 20112011). Herein lies Bean's book's overall utility; in it, he details how we can jumpstart developmental processes that bring students to this level of sophisticated writing. In short, Bean advocates two tools: (1) Use “scaffolding exercises that encourage students to take notes, generate ideas during prewriting, make an outline, or learn the structural features of different genres” and (2) link all new learning “to preexisting neural networks already in the learner's brain.” Do so by using “informal writing assignments aimed at helping students probe memory, connect new concepts to old networks, dismantle blocking assumptions, and understand the significance of the new concept” (Bean 20112011). Bean challenges us to pose writing problems that (1) compel students to develop research-substantiated argumentative positions and (2) require revision that results in refined expression and critical thinking. He provides a stand-out case study that could certainly be replicated in ecology classes: A business professor assigns numerous one- to two-page essays arguing for or against increasingly complex theses. These essays require research, data analysis, and reasonable argument development; revisions for higher grades are encouraged. Providing revision opportunities, Bean maintains, is of utmost necessity. He encourages requiring multiple drafts of even seemingly straightforward writing tasks (Bean 20112011). While this suggestion might seem obvious, subjects of a study exploring science faculty perceptions of their role in writing instruction reported providing few or zero revision opportunities (Zhu 20042004). However, research Bean cites indicates revision is central to students mastering discipline-specific writing (and writing more generally). Throughout Engaging Ideas, Bean provides guidance, in some cases step-by-step, for the following: (1) shifting the focus from grammar to critical thinking through writing, (2) designing writing assignments that are directly relevant to science course topics, (3) scaffolding writing assignments and revision to support student skill development, and (4) re-thinking our expectations to encompass the significant responsibility of instructors to model and mentor students toward enhanced writing skills. With Bean's book in hand, we no longer have an excuse to mutter into our cups about our students’ lack of skills. Bean and the bulk of the writing instruction literature make it clear—we can tap into a body of scholarship that will help us help our students meet mutual expectations. Engaging Ideas is an invaluable guide to doing so. Meghan Duffy, Jeremy Fox, and Kelly Kinney provided valuable comments on prior versions of this manuscript.
This paper considers the phonological patterning of pharyngealised /r/ in a dialect of Moroccan Arabic. Through acoustic analysis of recorded interviews targeting specific vocabulary and morphological paradigms, I describe a marginally contrastive distribution of emphatic and plain rhotic variants among Arabic speakers in Fès, indicating that pharyngealised variants trigger a process similar to, but distinct from, the emphasis spread associated with the canonical emphatic consonants /ṭ/, /ḍ/, and /ṣ/. While in some varieties of Arabic, rhotic pharyngealisation is an allophonic alternation conditioned by adjacent back vowels, in others [ṛ] has spread through morphological and lexical diffusion to attain quasi-phonemic status. In the changing urban dialect of Fès, the presence of conflicting dialect norms allows us to study how individuals resolve ambiguous phonological input with respect to /ṛ/, and how this is manifested in their phonetic output.For this study, I conducted 24 mixed sociolinguistic/phonetic interviews, with the help of native Fessi interview assistants. The interviews provide a comprehensive sample of rhotics for each speaker, which were analyzed for their phonetic effects on adjacent vowels. The acoustic data indicate a wide range of individual variability in the patterning of emphatic /ṛ/, tempered by predictable patterns in certain paradigms such as ḥmaṛ ‘donkey’ with non-emphatic plural ḥmir, or the minimal contrast between biṛan ‘bars’ and biran ‘wells’. Speakers also exhibited variability in the scope of pharyngealisation spread from /ṛ/, even though all speakers exhibited predictable long-range spread from /ṭ/, /ṣ/, and /ḍ/. These results point to a phonological change in progress, moving in the direction of phonemic pharyngealized /ṛ/.
The article is devoted to the assessment of the network community as a collective subject, as a group of interconnected and interdependent persons performing joint activities. According to the main research hypothesis, various forms of group subjectness, which determine its readiness for joint activities, are manifested in the discourse of the network community. Discourse constitutes a network community, mediates the interaction of its participants, represents ideas about the world, values, relationships, attitudes, sets patterns of behavior. A procedure is proposed for identifying discernible traces of the subjectness of a network community at various levels (lexical, semantic, content-analytical scales, etc.). The subjective structure of the network community is described based on experts' implicit representations. The revealed components of the subjectness of network communities are compared with the characteristics of the subjectness of offline social groups. It is shown that the structure of the subjectness of network communities for some components is similar to the structure of the characteristics of the subjectness of offline social groups: the discourse of the network community represents a discussion of joint activities, group norms, and values, problems of civic identity. The specificity of network communities' subjectness is revealed, which is manifested in the positive support of communication within the community, the identification and support of distinction between "us" and "them". Two models of the relationship between discursive features and the construct "subjectness" are compared: additive-cumulative and additive. The equivalence of models is established based on the discriminativeness and the level of consistency with expert evaluation by external criteria.
This article is devoted to the concept of norm definition in language communication, the establishing cases of deviation from different types of norms in political communication, and understanding of the language meanings that confirm the violation of the norm in the speeches of German politicians. The speeches of German politicians Sarah Wagenknecht, F.-M. Stritmayer were analysed on the basis of observance and violation of linguistic and communicative norms. Cases of violation of norms in the process of speech action "charges" were revealed. Language norms in German political communication are generally respected. The violation of the communicative norm is most often expressed by confrontational communicative strategy, conflict and speech action "blame", which are verbalized by means of various language tools - lexical, stylistic, syntactic, rhetorical. Speech action "blame" is explicated through negative emotional assessment, criticism of the opponents’ actions.
Evidence from both behavioral and neuropsychological studies suggest that different types of organizational principles govern semantic representations of abstract and concrete words. The reviewed neuroimaging studies provide new evidence about the role of brain areas of the semantic network involved in the encoding of some types of information during processing of abstract and concrete concepts, better characterizing the neural underpinnings and the organizational principles of semantic representation of these types of word.
How to be to Ukraine with its language? The author of the article reflects on the ways of further development of the Ukrainian language in Ukraine as the only state language and offers specific extraordinary measures to achieve this goal. In particular, the author considers a number of special measures for the early inclusion of children aged 3-6 years from Russian-speaking families into the sphere of phonetic, prosodic, grammatical and lexical norms of the Ukrainian language. At the stage of growing up (17-22 years old), the author recommends introducing compulsory higher education in Ukraine with a degree in the Ukrainian language and literature for all young people who have not passed special secondary oral and written secondary school exams in the Ukrainian language.
Cet article interroge les modalités de nomination des partis islamistes autorisés à participer aux élections dans cinq pays (Maroc, Algérie, Tunisie, Égypte et Turquie). Tandis que ceux-ci sont perçus comme les représentants d’un conservatisme religieux, leurs noms puisent dans des répertoires lexicaux forgés par deux formes de réformisme, l’islamisme de la Nahda et le développementalisme nationaliste. Ces noms énoncent la quête d’un modèle de développement dont l’authenticité s’appuierait sur une double volonté de concrétiser des normes islamiques à l’échelle nationale et de répondre aux revendications des populations locales. L’article montre néanmoins comment, en l’absence d’un tel modèle authentique, quatre mots issus du répertoire lexical réformiste (justice, développement, liberté et renaissance) sont employés comme des « principes correcteurs ». Il contribue ainsi à expliquer comment le pragmatisme de l’islam politique se pratique selon un triptyque de logiques légaliste, d’affirmation électorale et de distinction politique.
An extreme situation implies an active influence on the psychological-emotional state of a person, which is expressed in tension, agitation, aggression and other manifestations of temperament, deviated from the generally accepted norms of behavior. In artistic texts, the representation of a person's speech behavior in an extreme (conflict) situation is realized through the Swahili language means that mark a conflict communicative act. In this article, based on the material of the Swahiliazy novel "The World is Chaos" by E. Kesilahabi, an attempt is made to study the markers that reveal the speech behavior of a conflict communicative act participants. Phonetics-graphic, grammatical and lexical markers are distinguished, the most frequent of them are identified (the use of a wide range of interjections, the highlighting of a phrase with an exclamation point, syntactic repetitions, the use of invective vocabulary, etc.). The authors come to the conclusion that the simultaneous implementation of these markers is observed in the dicthemes of conflict communicative acts to a greater extent. The results of the research can be used for further developments in the field of linguistics, ethnic-linguistics, psycholinguistics, grammar, translation studies, etc
The article documents cases of grammatical, phonetic and lexical “irregularities” occurring in modern Russian. The conclusions are based on analysis of the National Corpus of the Russian Language and internet queries. The author pays special attention to phrases indicating time relations: “for some time” / “after what time”. It is noted that there is an “older” and “younger” standard for using collocations with the lexeme „time” and prepositions, and the change in the norm resulted from the transition from treating space-time as an abstract, uniform chronotope to the idea of time as a discrete quantity, i.e. certain fragmented, countable sections (century, year, month, day, hour, minute, second). Research has shown that discrete forms denoting time began to dominate from the mid-nineteenth century, which is related to the changes in the image of the world taking place at that time. The old ways of speaking about time, however, still appear in modern Russian. The article shows that other lexical and inflectional archaisms (e.g. short forms of adjectives) are also returning to modern speech. This can be considered a manifestation of social linguistic memory, which involves having the ability to recall and use old forms or meanings, according to norms that used to be applied in the past. The author proposes that this phenomenon be called “spontaneous recurrence of the norm”. It is claimed that such recurrence of the old norm may be caused either by speakers’ ignorance of the current norm or by their desire for a “retro” style that results from fashion or manners. It could also be a manifestation of “language refreshment” through the activation of speech memory, or retrieving former forms and old standards out of the “subconscious” of language users.
Differences in nomenclature, regarding the legal reasoning of judex facti and judex juris decisions, occur in determining the act of taking part in a criminal act. This is due to different reasoning methods. The legal consideration approach to judex facti decisions, in verifying facts as norms, is performed lexically. The way the judge's logic works is by using deductive logic and verifying the facts of the defendant's actions to normalise elements that are merely restrictive. The judex juris decisions of judges and the judex facti legal judgments understand the act of participation in corruption case by using an inductive reasoning method. Judex juris decisions examine judex facti legal considerations by determining the major premise more extensively. Judges search for the legal principles underlying norms to verify the facts of the defendant's condition. The results of the verification and the conclusion of judex juris state that the defendant's actions are proven but there are no faults. Thus, judex facti decisions are cancelled and it is decided that the defendant is free from all legal charges.
In the light of the most recent critical debate, sixteenth-century Petrarchism has been divested of the simple dichotomy between norm and rejection, similarity and dissimilarity, imitation and deviation in relation to Petrarch’s model or Bembo’s codification, and qualified as a complex and composite movement in which both significant constants and equally significant variations should be identified. In the frame of this dialectic, we analyse Michelangelo Buonarroti’s Rime in comparison to the original model of Rerum vulgarium fragmenta. The analysis highlights the fact that Michelangelo’s genius distorts the reference model and deviates from it in a material, tragic and expressionist sense, rather than offering a harmonious result of a strict observance of Petrarchism. Michelangelo, however, achieves this effect by employing the same rhetorical and expressive tools as Petrarch. The paper presents a comparative analysis illustrated by numerous examples of the rhetorical figures of antithesis, oxymoron, synonymy and a wide array of metaphors and lexical choices.
The revue analyzes a book dedicated to the problems of the Bulgarian dialects abroad, the Bulgarian literary language and its regional written norms, current problems occurring in the lexical and grammatical system of the Bulgarian.
The essay explores lexical coincidences in the works of Yuri Tynianov and Osip Mandelshtam coincidences which appeared in different time periods, independently of each other.In the second half of the 1920s, Tynianov wrote the novel Death of the Vazir-Mukhtar which, while dealing with events of the 1820s, anticipated the soon-tobe disappearance of free artistic speech.Ten years later, Tynianov's anticipation became a reality reflected in Mandelstam's poem Lamarck. Freedom of creative activity did not disappear completely but became, in many respects, a thing of the past. Even if the hope for the return of free expression still existed, no one imagined when this event would take place. Loyalty to the regime and assentation were the signs of the times. Studies of Soviet artistic life in that period reveal the extreme degree of the unnatural selection aimed at creating unwavering servants of the regime. One of such servants wrote: In today's situation, genius and villainy are two compatible things: the killing of a Mozart may assist history.Such assistance to history became a Soviet norm and, according to independent Russian migr observers, led to a situation in which Soviet literature lost the position within world literature obtained by the Russian classical literature of the 19th century and acquired unmistakably provincial traits. As Shigalev declared in Dostoyevsky's Demons, All are slaves and equal in their slavery.Analogous processes were taking place in cinema, where pro-regime servilism due to cinema's ability to influence the audience more rapidly and more powerfully than literature acquired its most dangerous form. This was fully understood by the Bolshevik regime which held cinema in high regard. Creating art? No, doing what you were told to do, this was how Soviet filmmaker Leonid Trauberg later described those times.
The aim of this work is to present a brief analysis of the complex language that differentiates a patent from any other technical document. As far as Italian and Spanish patents are concerned, in fact, it is possible to identify a set of lexical, syntactical and textual characteristics that are the result of a well-balanced combination between technical and legal language in order to guarantee a consistent style to this unique genre. The second part of this work offers some general norms required to provide a literal translation of a patent before introducing some practical examples of translation from Spanish into Italian with a particular interest on the environment related lexicon present in a patent against marine plastic pollution.
was born in 1939. A student of grammar who graduated in the field of Serbo-Croat languages taught classical linguistics at the University of Rouen from 1967 to 2004. He published more than one hundred articles on morphology, syntax, the lexicon of classical languages (Latin, Greek and Sanskrit) and on Caucasian linguistics. Twenty eight of his articles, rewritten and completed, were brought together in Words and Myths in 2008. Several other books published by Christol are devoted to Latin and to Greek such as Homonymy in Latin and Greek lexicons and The Latin of the cooks: vegetable nutrition, lexical study. The latter addresses the Latin lexicon of cooking, which he reconstructed from two collections of recipes, transmitted under the name of Apicius, a famous gastronome of the time of Augustus, although these texts were written between fourth and seventh centuries and in a language that departs from the classical norm.
The practice of euthanasia activates the debate about the scope of therapeutic eff orts in limited situations and involves the society in the discussion of values and social beliefs implicated in the management of the person. The objective was to analyze the social representations about euthanasia between students of law and medicine. A free association questionnaire was applied with the inductor term: euthanasia, with 120 university students. The data were separately submitted to a prototypical analysis (IRaMuTeQ Software) and to a multiple correspondence analysis -MCA (R.TeMiS Software). Through the prototypical analysis, some variations were identifi ed in the central core hypothesis, which referred to the possibility of two distinct social representations. Through the MCA, a lexical fi eld was observed, linked to the image of death for the Medicine group and to values and norms for the Law group, with religion as a signifi cant variable in the reorganization of the representational fi eld, being able to accentuate a negative and condemnatory dimension on this practice.
The article deals with the formation of the philosophical and psychological basis of the moral code of masters of the oriental struggle. The constructivism of the religious and philosophical thought of Buddhism and Shintoism in this process is emphasized. The term of «busido» is analysed in lexical-semantic, artistic-figurative and constructive planes. The «warrior’s path» is the key conception of the phenomenon of samurai, the core of life and life-creation, the essence and meaning of a personality’s being, the basic model and the cultural core of the masters in oriental martial arts and samurai. Busido – «warrior’s path» – the samurai code is a set of rules, recommendations and norms of the behavior of a true warrior in battle and everyday life, military philosophy, known from the ancient times. The Samurai Code of Honor proved its ability to educate true warriors, fearless defenders of the native land, brave and courageous, whom the country has been proud of for centuries. The Code has contributed to the formation of the socio-political, moral, psychological, strategic and tactical and technical potential of samurai warriors. The typology of individuals is shown: searchers of death, players with death, who deliberately neglected mortal danger. Life laid on the altar of freedom of the Motherland is the holy fate of the warrior. The existence of life in a vast existential space reveals a universal opportunity for the creation of good deeds and love to a man. The victory of this eternal and boundless world emerges on the verge of life and death. The results of research of moral qualities in sport activities of karatists in kyokushinkai style of Donetsk region are presented. The training program of karatist’s moral qualities optimization is conducted, which includes: mastering of relaxation methods, self-development of consciousness, forming of moral qualities. The program provides the creation of the special social environment, realization of methods, stimulation of psychological mechanisms of sportsmen’s moral qualities development.
As the most commonly used English in international economic and trade exchanges, Economic and Trade English has its unique linguistic norms and stylistic features. Economic and trade translation requires translators to have a strong sense of context and professionalism in economic and trade English. Its translation principles are stylistic suitability and lexical correspondence. Translators should use four-character structure, business formulas and sentence structure adjustment to guide translation practice. According to different types of texts, they should use unused terms accurately, so as to be faithful to the original text, express accurately and unify standard translation principles.
This chapter analyzes changes in Russian as it is spoken in Lithuania and which are related to the post-Soviet socio-political changes in the country. Language policies aimed at hegemony of Lithuanian in all spheres of public life, as well as reforms in the educational system downgrading the status of Russian, have had an adverse effect on overall Russian proficiency in Lithuania. We will discuss these new realities and the emergence of new societal values that have triggered language innovations and contributed to increasing divergences between Lithuanian Russian and Russian as it is spoken in the metropolis. Material for analysis was drawn from the mass media since their language reflects the language of the society and also influences it. Focusing on the systematic analysis of three Lithuanian Russian-language periodicals and a popular Internet news portal, the chapter demonstrates that mass media has lost the role it played earlier as that of a language norm-setter and the choice of innovations that reflect new realities is spontaneous and unsystematic. Most of the changes that have occurred in Lithuanian Russian in the post-Soviet period are lexical: names of social institutions and organizations, borrowings from Lithuanian and calques, changes in the semantic field of the words, etc. The headlines of the Russian-language press are almost completely devoid of allusions to Russian precedent texts, a feature that may be influenced by Lithuanian culture but also by gaps in the knowledge of Russian phraseology, aphorisms and general detachment of the speakers from Russian culture.
The article is devoted to the question of selecting a special (terminological) vocabulary for a comprehensive explanatory dictionary and its lexicographic normalization (standardization). Of particular relevance, this problem occurs today, when there is an active replenishment of the terminology in various fields of science, technology, production, etc. The language policy regarding the dynamic nature of the norms of the literary language consists in its codification – the establishment of rules of use in dictionaries and grammar. The main principle of graphic design of words in the dictionary of an interpretative type is the strict observance of the rules of the spelling. Independent standardization (bringing terminology to a single system) from the necessity of the first priority solving a number of problems caused by violations of the lexical general literary norm. The most typical spelling mistakes that occur in dictionaries are outlined, and the ways of overcoming them are proposed. The combination of objective updating of the lexical structure with the consciously carried on by linguists subjective updating has become a specific feature of work on organization, codification and development of the Ukrainian vocabulary. In a chain of terms on the notation of the notion “bringing something into a uniform” there is a certain hierarchical subordination: systematization – normalization – unification – codification – standardization “observance of the only stable grammatical and stylistic norms on the national language”. The question of the place of special vocabulary in general dictionaries is one of the most difficult in modern lexicography, especially today, when there is an active replenishment of the vocabulary by terms of various branches of science, technology, production. Theoretical lexicography substantiates the necessity of introducing terms into the register of explanatory dictionaries, which is the core of the terminology and at the same time a part of the literary language. Practical work on the dictionary reveals various tendencies in fixing the new words of the special vocabulary: from the aspiration of its full coverage to the reasoned selection. There are several main criteria for selecting terminological units for a general-purpose dictionary: 1) the social significance of the terms of science and technology; 2) structural features contributing to the term adaption by the system of literary language; 3) the scope of the special vocabulary. The stable tendency of productivity growth of syntactic derivation in the Ukrainian language is noted – replenishment of the terminological fund by terms of phrases, and also the criteria of the selection of such multi-component phrases, their codification and standardization are outlined. The main tendencies, which are traced in the new dictionaries, are noted. One of the most important is devoted to the foreign words entry into Ukrainian and problems connected with their spelling. Violations of spelling norms caused by wrong adaptation of borrowings in modern dictionaries are pointed out, and the negative influence of spelling mismanagement of borrowings on the functioning of the Ukrainian lexemes is emphasized. As a result, a well-considered way of building and normalizing the Ukrainian literary lexicon is the principle of a reasonable balance between tradition and the need for renewal.
[In English below.] Este artigo traz um recorte semântico-lexical do projeto de atlas linguístico da região do Médio Tietê, no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Dentre as dez localidades que perfazem a rede de pontos de investigação, apresentamos aqui dados do município de Santana de Parnaíba (SdP). Trata-se de dez questões onomasiológicas respondidas por informantes de perfis sociais distintos. As perguntas foram extraídas do questionário semântico-lexical do Atlas linguístico do Brasil (CARDOSO, 2014) e aplicadas após modificações. Elas tematizam características pessoais, fenômenos e entes no mundo físico, cujas respostas mais frequentes em SdP foram ‹raiz›, ‹urubu›, ‹joão-de-barro›, ‹varejeira›, ‹terçol›, ‹catarro›, ‹tagarela›, ‹mão-de-vaca›, ‹balanço› e ‹interruptor›. Para a elicitação, aplicou-se a técnica de entrevista em três passos, que basicamente consiste em (i) perguntar, (ii) insistir e (iii) sugerir (THUN, 2000). O objetivo do presente texto é (a) sistematicamente expor e brevemente comentar as (primeiras) respostas espontâneas dos parnaibanos. Adicionalmente, apresentamos: (b) três critérios de invalidação de respostas; (c) correlações internas linguístico-sociais; (d) contrastes das normas lexicais e formas mais frequentes apuradas em SdP com resultados de seis atlas linguísticos fora do perímetro da região do Médio Tietê; e (e) observações linguísticas complementares acerca das lexias. No Brasil, a pesquisa é financiada pela Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP), no âmbito do Projeto para a História do Português Paulista (PHPP), e, na Alemanha, pelo Serviço Alemão de Intercâmbio Acadêmico (DAAD). Palavras-chave: Médio Tietê. Dialeto Caipira. Dialetologia. Sincronia. Comparabilidade. Cite como (ABNT): FIGUEIREDO JR., S. R. Variação semântico-lexical em Santana de Parnaíba. LaborHistórico, v. 5, n. esp. 2, p. 58-82, 7 set. 2019. A semantic-lexical excerpt from our project of a linguistic atlas for the region of Médio Tietê, São Paulo State (Brazil), is presented here. The research field is formed by ten cities, each one defined as being a point of inquiry. Santana de Parnaíba (SdP), as one of them, is taken into account for this paper. Specifically, spontaneous answers to ten onomasiological questions provided by local residents with different social profiles. The questions were taken with modifications from the semantic-lexical questionnaire of the Linguistic Atlas of Brazil (CARDOSO, 2014). They are related to personal characteristics, as well as physical entities and phenomena, whose more frequent answers in SdP were ‹raiz›, ‹urubu›, ‹joão-de-barro›, ‹varejeira›, ‹terçol›, ‹catarro›, ‹tagarela›, ‹mão-de-vaca›, ‹balanço› e ‹interruptor›. For the elicitation, the three-step interview technique was employed, consisting basically in (i) asking; (ii) insisting; and (iii) suggesting (THUN, 2000). This paper aims to (a) expose systematically and offer brief comments on the (first) spontaneous answers of our SdP participants. Additionally, we (b) present three criteria for invalidating answers; (c) establish internal sociolinguistic correlations; (d) report a contrast between, on the one hand, lexical items that occurred as the most frequent or rather as norms in SdP; and, on the other hand, results of six other Brazilian linguistic atlases outside the Médio Tietê region; and finally (e) provide complementary linguistic observations on certain lexical occurrences. Within the framework of the Project for the History of Portuguese in São Paulo state (PHPP), this research receives funding from the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP); in Germany, the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) also kindly finances this investigation. Keywords: Médio Tietê region; "Caipira" dialect; dialectology; synchrony; comparability. Cite as (APA): Figueiredo Jr., S. R. (2019). Variação semântico-lexical em Santana de Parnaíba. LaborHistórico, 5(spec. 2), 58-82.
Abstract The Wedding Invitation is one of the significant text genres. Following genre analysis approach and discourse analysis (DA), the present research analysed the wedding invitation genres in Pakistan to explore generic structures, as well as the role played by the broader socio-cultural norms and values in shaping this genre. Therefore, a corpus of 50 wedding invitations in Urdu and English was randomly selected from cards received from January to June 2018. The results of this genre analysis revealed seven obligatory and one optional move in Urdu, while six obligatory and one optional move in English invitations. Through discourse analysis, it has been uncovered how religious association and cultural influence in Pakistani society shape textual selection. Little variation was displayed in the invitations of the two languages, presumably due to regional cultural reflections and recent influence of western values. A comparison of Pakistani and UK invitations showed differences not only in move selection but also in lexical choices which are shaped by the respective cultures.
The present article studies peculiarities of colloquial vocabulary of English, Russian and French languages on the material of fictional texts and their translation, particularly works by S. Maugham and their translation into Russian and French. Special attention is paid to the problem of preserving stylistic component when translating from one language into another. Since the languages demonstrate their own specific features in the aspect of word choice determined by cultural nature, development of functional styles and peculiarities of linguistic and stylistic norms, translators have to face certain difficulties when transferring the source text into another language. One of the problems in this aspect is that translator has to find not only corresponding lexical or phraseological units to preserve semantic components of the original, but also follow the stylistic mode of the text and at the same time do not shift away from stylistic norms of the target language. The article shows how translators cope with this problem and try to solve both tasks.
The article analyzes the lexical content of the concept of “tolerance” in the materials published on the pages of high-quality Russian press, presented by “Nezavisimaya Gazeta”, “Literaturnaya Gazeta” and “Kommersant” newspaper. The word “tolerance” means “patience” at the level of lexical meaning are contradictory. This is due to the fact that the scientific literature treats tolerance and patience differently – from synonymy to complete opposition. The presence of the word in the media text “encourages” it to take the ideological orientation of the General public context. Because of the arising of the topical connotations of tolerance of the phenomenon may go to tolerance is the word. As a complex interdisciplinary category “tolerance” in periodicals functions in different discourses and with different evaluation characteristics. Its presence on the pages of print media is often supplemented by certain lexical markers that do not affect the connotations: “political correctness”, “multiculturalism”, “European values”, “globalization”. The semantic content of tolerance in media texts is expressed by associative rows and oppositions, while many lexemes can simultaneously be identified with tolerance and opposed to it. These include: “respect”, “understanding”, “goodwill”, “indifference”, “alienation”, “internationalism”. In texts with a negative assessment of tolerance, the semantic content of the concept is supplemented by the following components: indifferentism, the lack of the concept of norm and pathology, the destruction of traditional norms and values, the loss of national identity. This kind of tolerance, including at the conceptual level, in media journalism is opposed to the primordial Russian ideas about the spiritual values of life. The lexical component of the category “tolerance” in the press reflects the peculiarities of its functioning in the modern linguistic picture and socio-political space of Russia. The texts of high-quality print media provide meaningful language material not only for the philological study of the category of “tolerance”, but also for its interdisciplinary development. At the same time, interdisciplinary comments are necessary as a broad (near and far) context and in the immanent study of language material relating to such an urgent problem as tolerance.
Type A SLA researchers’ detached scrutiny of closely observed learner utterances between classroom walls has little in common with the vast prairies of attested wording seen from the air by the high-flying aircraft of Type B corpus linguistics, and neither have much in common with the intensely cultivated undergrowth so carefully explored by Type C linguistic ethnographers on the ground. It is true—but surely also trite—to say that all three yield important insights into language use, the first uncovering regularities of acquisition, the second large-scale patterns, the third the minutiae of local relations between individuals, identities, and words. But this stock escape clause of complementarity does not in itself elucidate a connection between them. (p. 430) With its 2016 position paper, the Douglas Fir Group (DFG), a coalition of 15 applied linguists of various methodological persuasions, asserts that more than peaceful co-existence is possible, and indeed necessary if the field of applied linguistics is to grapple with the issues and challenges of language teaching and learning in the contemporary globalized and multilingual world. DFG offers a transdisciplinary framework, depicted visually in a figure entitled “The Multifaceted Nature of Language Learning and Teaching” (p. 25), that attempts to account for the spectrum of factors that influence teaching and learning, ranging from the macro level of ideological structures to the meso level of sociocultural institutions and communities to the micro level of social activity. An integrative understanding is only possible, DFG avers, when research about these multiple levels is integrated because “no level exists on its own; each exists only through constant interaction with the others, such that each gives shape to and is shaped by the next, and all are considered essential to understanding SLA” (p. 25). The DFG framework is admirable in its scope, and I wholeheartedly support the aim of transdisciplinary inquiry to achieve a wider and more holistic understanding than is possible from one vantage point alone (e.g., Hult, 2010). Though DFG acknowledges the importance of interaction, the framework is more robust as a guide to varying degrees of context than to the nature of (inter)action. In her critique of the framework, Han (2016) argues that what is needed “is a system approach to any complex SLA phenomena that takes account of multiple elements, rather than one or two, and traces their relationships to uncover the intricate interaction” (p. 739; emphasis added). If, as Cook (2015) posits, we need to elucidate connections to move beyond mere complementarity of empirical perspectives, a model for connections is required. In other words, to offer an analogy, we need to identify not only the parts of the engine but also the principles behind how it runs. Accordingly, I put forward nexus analysis as a way of conceptualizing such connections. Drawing upon the papers in the present issue for support and illustration, I suggest that the nexus mechanism originally put forward by Scollon and Scollon (2004) can be extended beyond its ethnographic, discourse-analytic foundations to serve as a broad conceptual orientation that might fruitfully supplement the DFG framework by adding a way to map dynamism. I will not delve into the underlying methodological details of nexus analysis as originally conceived since I have done so elsewhere (e.g., Hult, 2015, 2017). Nor is it my goal to convert others to ethnographic discourse analysis. Rather, I will render the elements of nexus here with broad strokes, focusing on how they might serve generally as a way to conceptualize the processes through which multidimensional social systems, like language teaching and learning as represented in the DFG framework, operate. As a corollary, I also suggest that nexus has potential as a meta-methodology (cf. Hult, 2017) that can guide how results and analysis from different methodological approaches can be integrated in connected rather than merely complementary ways. Nexus analysis is a multidimensional conceptual orientation that Scollon and Scollon (2004) developed by drawing upon their work at the intersection of critical discourse analysis, anthropological linguistics, and interactional sociolinguistics in order to guide the study of “semiotic cycles of people, objects, and discourses in and through moments of sociocultural importance” (p. x). It has since been taken up by researchers in a wide range of contexts to investigate an array of topics such as, inter alia, disability, language policy, language shift, and tourism (e.g., Al Zidjaly, 2006; Kauppinen, 2014; Källkvist & Hult, 2016; Lane, 2010; Pietikäinen et al., 2011; cf. Lane, 2014).11 For a bibliography of studies using nexus analysis visit http://www.discoursehub.fi/engaging-nexus-analysis/references/ At the core of nexus analysis is social action, with the fundamental premise that all human activity is the result of (iterative) actions. Practices are the product of action; likewise, institutions, communities, and even societal structures are not created ex nihilo but are (re)produced through human actions (cf. Scollon & Scollon, 2004, pp. 12–13). In this way, the nexus orientation resonates with Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) as presented by Larsen–Freeman (2019, this issue), who writes that “with iteration (but not repetition), patterns are built up at different levels of scale” (p. 64). Patterns that are built up may last for longer or shorter periods of time and may cover larger or smaller areas of space since “complex systems change on multiple timescales and operate at different interacting levels of scale” (p. 65). It can be easy to overlook the centrality of action on certain scales, especially with respect to structures that are (re)produced over timescales longer than a human lifetime or over spatial scales beyond immediate personal experience. Such structures might appear to simply exist because “what results from one iteration is used as the starting point for the next iteration” (Larsen–Freeman, 2019, this issue, p. 67). For example, we must be reminded that ideologies of monolingualism are not just floating in the ether but are, in fact, continuously reproduced by the actions of specific researchers and teachers following earlier iterations of similar views legitimized by previous researchers and teachers, and so on (cf. Ortega, 2019, this issue). For this reason, I have argued elsewhere (e.g., Hult, 2010) that the macro–meso–micro distinction can be misleading because it obscures the role of action by distancing some structures from it, situating them in a hierarchical order that can make it harder to see the full spectrum of connections. “In the place of a hierarchy,” Larsen–Freeman (2019, this issue) suggests, “we might think in terms of a heterarchy, where due to homologous dynamics, influence extends in both/many directions among the components of a complex system, rather than top-down or bottom-up” (p. 68). We can be more precise by referring to specific scales.22 Scales are more than a micro–macro substitute; they are not only about context but about making and situating meaning across dimensions of human existence (Blommaert, Westinen, & Leppänen, 2014). A detailed treatment of scales is beyond the scope of the present text. For further discussion of scales as they relate to nexus analysis see Scollon & Scollon (2004, pp. 167–168) and Hult (2017). See De Costa & Canagarajah (2016) for a broader treatment of scales as they relate to language teaching and learning. A social action, then, is a point of “layered simultaneity” (cf. Blommaert, 2005, pp. 126–131), where multiple phenomena that each unfold over different scales of space and time intersect in one moment. An action is both mediated by these phenomena while also influencing them through reproduction and change. What the nexus orientation contributes is a mechanism for understanding and mapping this dynamism. In Figure 1, I offer my own representation of the mechanism as a revisualization of the nexus processes that Scollon & Scollon (2004, p. 20, p. 27) identified. As the nucleus of the nexus mechanism, social action is at the center. It is accomplished using semiotic resources such as “linguistic constructions,” “prosodic conventions,” “non-verbal means of meaning-making,” tools, and other artifacts (Hall, 2019, this issue, p. 88; cf. Scollon & Scollon, 2004, p. 12; also, DFG, 2016, p. 25). A social action is permeable. This is so for physical as well as mental action. For instance, borrowing from Bateson (1972), Larsen–Freeman (2019, this issue) ponders “where the boundary between the end of the blind man's cane and the world can be drawn” (p. 69) while Ellis (2019, this issue) points out that “the recognition that cognition is indivisible from our embodiment, from our environment, and from our situated actions leads naturally on to the idea that cognition is not to be found in the head, nor indeed in the individual, but rather that it is a distributed sociotechnical system” (p. 44). Moreover, of the individual who performs a social action, Larsen–Freeman, paraphrasing Biesta & Tedder (2007), notes that “agency is not a power that one has (…) but rather is something one achieves by means of an environment, not simply in an environment” (p. 66; emphasis in original). Context does not exist independent of social actions; context is continuously (re)created by social actions. A social action is not located in the core of distinct and nested contexts like the smallest piece of a matryoshka doll. Rather, it is an integrated component of a sociohistorical system (Scollon & Scollon, 2004, pp. 11–12). The means by which a social action is connected to a system, as characterized in the nexus orientation, involve three types of cycles: historical body, interaction order, and discourse in place. As denoted by the arrows in Figure 1, each one has a history that can be described as analogous to the water cycle. Much like water rains down, picks up particles from the ground or bodies of water, evaporates, and rains down anew so, too, are these three cycles characterized by iteration and change (Scollon & Scollon, 2004, p. 27). A social action intersects with each cycle at a particular point in that cycle's history. The cycle mediates the action while the action also affects the cycle. Affecting the cycle might mean a radical altering (e.g., polluting a water supply) or an active effort to maintain or strengthen a certain state (e.g., water conservation). No phenomenon is static, whether ideological/structural, institutional, or (inter)personal. All are in flux and intimately intertwined with social action. Each cycle type encompasses phenomena within a certain scope of space and/or time. For any given social action, there might be multiple cycles of each type that intersect, some of which might be essential to understanding the action and some of which might not, some of which might align with each other and some of which might conflict. The “goal in a nexus analysis is,” Scollon and Scollon (2004) explain, “to try to discover which are the and to map as well as we can the of cycles through and (p. The DFG framework is in this as it an of phenomena on various scales that be for understanding a social action a as an iteration of social to language learning and The nexus orientation, in offers a way to conceptualize the mechanism by which these phenomena are connected to that social action. at each type of cycle. The historical is a of personal (Scollon & Scollon, 2004, p. and that who we are as and how we to It is the of our system, and and change. This cycle type over the of an individual With respect to language (2019, this issue) for the with the historical as a cycle that “to the of an language (…) it a more understanding of learning, not as a but rather as and over It also with (2019, this issue) that of inquiry be from learning to learning to in and that across the with learning by at one and learning by at the be taken as of the (p. In this the of language it or is a historical cycle through which make of and their semiotic resources as of the of a of in the social world. Language then, is a because is end state to what is (…) any of in is of in their and not an of the resources (Hall, 2019, this issue, p. linguistic is in flux and with the semiotic that that as in and (2019, this issue) study where and when to the social action of the of other The created an for the to upon their semiotic resources while also adding to their historical bodies to the of the as Ellis (2019, this issue) is important because it upon our our our our of that is some of it is and much of it (p. A social action not only with a historical but also with the other and communities to which the action is The interaction order the of and of interaction that guide how in on whether they are alone when they or if they are in with other (Scollon & Scollon, 2004, p. Scollon & Scollon (2004) the interaction order from of interaction and of see pp. For further discussion of these with respect to nexus analysis and language see Hult order cycles the spatial and scales of communities, which may be or or It is a cycle because an interaction order over time as the that and communities in the have used the resources to particular in are shaped by larger social institutions, such as the communities, (Hall, 2019, this issue, p. might which linguistic and among other semiotic to with what as well as the of between and among like of & are while other are over time as that are as to meaning in a 2019, this issue, p. In and (2019, this issue) we see the between the historical and interaction order as their how in to social factors In in as of language upon and different and they have and as different that are characterized by different and (p. Language learning takes as with others (cf. DFG, 2016, p. and so the of historical and interaction order cycles in moments of social action. This is the through which situated of using semiotic resources to be and by This is to as in a and its the language resources of each are as each to the (Larsen–Freeman, 2019, this issue, p. 67). in language As Ellis (2019, this issue) of human interaction with processes shape the and of research in the has that patterns of how language is is and (p. for certain are distributed across and and when they intersect in moments of social action, have the to their or of resources for and their or into the of an (Hall, 2019, this issue, p. This is further with other phenomena that also a social action. in the world are complex of discourses which through them. of these on time cycles like the of the built or of a of these discourses more like the topics among three through the (Scollon & Scollon, 2004, p. I have the of discourse as I at the my aim here is to render the elements of nexus in broad for wide as a transdisciplinary conceptual orientation to language learning and I will not delve into discourse it is to discourse in this as not to language or of but to of meaning that are not through (p. Scollon and Scollon (2004) to of discourse as in which we language with such as different of and using tools, and (p. As discourse in place the (e.g., Scollon & Scollon, and the 2015, 2017) phenomena in place at the of action. In to the historical and the interaction order then, a social action is mediated by as Larsen–Freeman (2019, this issue) points in and (p. For instance, of can relate to how teaching in a classroom with to the mediates the way we Such are not are the result of ideologies about teaching and learning that among the who about classroom ideologies might the of the and approaches to have been (re)produced and legitimized over In this example, there is between the discourse in place of physical classroom and the interaction order of in mediates how social actions unfold and what will have to to their historical A of other discourse in place cycles can be to language such as other among other Each one has a cycle of and is a of of to from and each one has the potential to social actions and with historical and interaction order cycles in various ways. actions may also be mediated by discourses in place that are not as may have or even This is in (2019, this issue) where discourses in place in the of language learning and second language and the in which they have mediated social actions of both teaching and about in that in language contexts are generally to because their has been with of the language to be a necessary for (p. and points out that have been as well from other in the also offers the of an end that “the idea of a for language learning, which linguistic will be in itself linguistic in language (p. In both we see the between the historical and discourse in place as to Such discourses in place can when in language and so Hult & the between cycle types it is by As Figure suggests, social action is the nexus point where cycles intersect and the for across them. A discourse in like the on at a in in the historical bodies of researchers through their and This discourse in the field while it is also by individual researchers in and it such that it is in place to social actions of research and to say that semiotic resources are distributed means that specific of have meaning in the interaction order of a while also taken up by in their historical bodies in them to social actions the meaning 2019, this & 2019, this issue). As Ellis (2019, this issue) it, processes are up not just of processes but also of the that the they are by the in which an on the world in the in which the world (p. In this way, social actions are nexus points for the of and of the the actions that can be and the actions that can be in the (Larsen–Freeman, 2019, this issue, p. 67). As then, are both and (Hall, 2019, this issue, p. It is in the centrality of social action and the mechanism by which particular types of phenomena intersect in it that nexus analysis has the potential as a transdisciplinary conceptual orientation for connections that might supplement the DFG the DFG framework the at all of and (p. The nexus mechanism how these dimensions are and as I have here drawing upon the in this In order to study the multidimensional nature of language learning and DFG (2016) for a transdisciplinary researchers their to different dimensions of social activity and (…) think (p. Nexus analysis is as a meta-methodology for this because such transdisciplinary research one to on the nature of the different dimensions and what of are for them as components of an integrated system 2017). Scollon and Scollon (2004) nexus analysis as an ethnographic, discourse I that the mechanism be used more generally to guide a or of researchers in about what dimensions are to investigate with respect to a certain of social action or and what of are needed to map the dimensions and the across them. Figure social actions in in nexus Scollon & Scollon (2004, pp. a field guide to research for nexus analysis. we might What we need to about the history of A and of B as it to their What are the of interaction and of that their to each their with these their about semiotic What approaches and be for the understanding we and of be but so any of from analysis, interactional linguistics or for (e.g., & all 2019, this issue). We might also are the actions of A and B mediated by and conceptual in is the interaction order or by these What social are possible by a historical at the of intersection with the interaction order and a discourse in With respect to these and critical discourse analysis might but so, too, from linguistic analysis, social social and of among other The of approaches and in on the nature of the social and the specific cycles that are for social action and in need of and in on the of the in the study 2010). the one a or research might a transdisciplinary study the range of cycles and the approaches and the DFG framework with the nexus mechanism researchers in this the other dimensions can as a to a need for or to these as methodological points or of research that make the between the and of research and the world the out to (p. Such a of might a to out or to a in order to methodological in this way a robust of the DFG framework, it is not the only way to from the of the nexus DFG (2016) that researchers can a transdisciplinary up or even their particular (p. researchers and the field as a when studies are out with multidimensional even when a particular study does to the full spectrum of that a study on one or more components might be by components on other dimensions is a starting the DFG framework with the nexus mechanism guide a in where their study is situated to the and what cycles from other dimensions be and how (cf. Larsen–Freeman, This make it possible for researchers to their study and their analysis or in to empirical work about these other A the of specific semiotic resources (e.g., among in for example, might upon research also in about and its to about the discourses in place and interaction that might with the historical that is the empirical a the of in might upon research about language in to how the of historical and interaction order cycles to discourses in place about are, of researchers in this but it more In by using the nexus mechanism as a conceptual orientation in with the DFG framework researchers can that a does not to or or how these to other and which make up the full (Scollon & Scollon, 2004, p. The DFG framework the multiple institutional, and dimensions in language learning and and the papers in this issue all different in which such dimensions can Larsen–Freeman (2019, this issue) that such as Figure in the DFG to the that exists among the components of the (p. while and (2019, this issue) that on is a for the of the of of (p. I while it also has its the nexus mechanism can serve as a supplement to the DFG framework by drawing to the role of social action as a and the cycles through which across dimensions can be and With a way to conceptualize the in the framework, we have the potential as a field to move a but of language learning and teaching that can beyond complementarity and achieve transdisciplinary
Abstract This chapter discusses the existence of linguistic norms (defined as socially determined and commonly shared criteria for correctness of action specific to language). It considers linguistic structure and semantic compositionality, lexical semantics, speech acts, and implicit communication and concludes that there are no linguistic norms stricto sensu at any of these levels. However, social norms constraining communication in the intimate societies in which language evolved have left traces in contemporary languages, notably in the universal existence of implicit communication. Key words: linguistic norm, linguistic structure, semantic compositionality, lexical semantics, speech act, implicit communication, Grice, principle of cooperation, society of intimates, evolution of language.