Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
16504 papers
Recent work has shown that listeners process words faster if said by a member of the group that typically uses the word. This paper further explores how the social distributions of words affect lexical access by exploring whether access is facilitated by invoking more abstract social categories. We conduct four experiments, all of which combine an Implicit Association Task with a Lexical Decision Task. Participants sorted real and nonsense words while at the same time sorting older and younger faces (exp. 1), male and female faces (exp. 2), stereotypically male and female objects (exp. 3), and framed and unframed objects, which were always stereotypically male or female (exp. 4). Across the experiments, lexical decision to socially skewed words is facilitated when the socially congruent category is sorted with the same hand. This suggests that the lexicon contains social detail from which individuals make social abstractions that can influence lexical access. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR], C)
The aim of this work is to present a brief analysis of the complex language that differentiates a patent from any other technical document. As far as Italian and Spanish patents are concerned, in fact, it is possible to identify a set of lexical, syntactical and textual characteristics that are the result of a well-balanced combination between technical and legal language in order to guarantee a consistent style to this unique genre. The second part of this work offers some general norms required to provide a literal translation of a patent before introducing some practical examples of translation from Spanish into Italian with a particular interest on the environment related lexicon present in a patent against marine plastic pollution.
Although pronunciation is part of the curriculum in many education programs, it is often left without attention. The article is dedicated to the study of peculiarities of formation and improvement of foreign language phonetic competence of border guard cadets while studying a foreign language for specific purposes. Phonetic difficulties related to the English language pronunciation, which are common mistakes for cadets are analyzed. Requirements for pronunciation of cadets based on the principle of approximation are determined. The method of formation of phonetic competence of cadets of non-linguistic faculties of higher military educational institutions is considered, under which the teaching of pronunciation is aimed at developing future specialists orthoepic skills of foreign language for specific purposes. The scientific and methodological literature on the topic is researched and the ways of formation of phonetic competence of cadets are observed, following the general methodical principle of communicativeness in the context of professionally oriented study of English. It is advisable to teach oral professional speech through the acquisition of phonetic, lexical and grammatical language levels in the system of various pre-text and post-text communication exercises, built on the principle of speech situations and aimed at improving the orthoepic norms of English, learning a special language understanding of the text, developing communication skills and mastering language material. The purpose of phonetics training in military higher education institutions is to embed in the long-term memory of cadets the normative composition of the pronunciation elements (phonemes and intones) and to automate their selection and combining. In order to acquire the necessary skills, it is advisable to form the phonetic competence of the cadets at different stages of the class, using different forms of work and types of exercises aimed at improving the cadets' auditory and professional skills.
Word Crimes:Reclaiming The Language of The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Donna Robinson Divine (bio) INTRODUCTION Of all the changes that can be documented in the seventy years since the founding of Israel, none is as dramatic and surprising as the country's status as a topic of intellectual inquiry. Once a trope for self-sacrifice and solidarity, a testament to the redemption of a bruised and battered people, the Jewish state, today, stands accused of practicing apartheid, genocide, ethnic cleansing, and of sustaining itself as a remnant of an outdated and thoroughly delegitimized colonial order. The Jewish state has not simply been re-branded; it has essentially been re-named. Once thought distinctive, Israel's singularity is now presented as an example of horrific bigotry if not savagery. How the change took hold in academia is best understood by focusing on the vocabulary that purports to show why the establishment of a Jewish State was an international crime that can only be undone by taking command of the language deployed to study Israel and its conflict with the Palestinians. The articles in this issue of Israel Studies explore this lexical transformation and describe how and why it acquired its totemic standing in the academy.1 Do words matter? Plato certainly believed they do, arguing that rhetoric in democracies blurred fact and fiction and undermined the capacity to see or understand truth.2 Hannah Arendt folds into her massive study of totalitarianism the corruption of language.3 George Orwell's dystopian novel, 1984, is structured around its ruler's power to control language by colonizing the meaning of words and denying people the capacity for independent judgment and critical thinking.4 But while "fake news", "alternate facts", and "truth decay" have been incorporated into our daily news cycle, they are typically hurled at the views or rhetoric of opponents [End Page 1] rather than as terms provoking self-examination and a willingness to examine the accuracy of one's own convictions.5 Denunciations of this distressing relationship to truth and evidence, issued constantly on campuses and in the mainstream media, have rarely been addressed to the ways in which a new vocabulary has acquired canonical status for describing the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Before turning to explore this linguistic alchemy, we must spend some time asking why engage in such an inquiry? Why not simply dismiss these words as irrelevant without examining how and why they were changed? Because the radical alteration of the way in which Israel is now described has come to exert such a strong hold on students and scholars and has so substantially degraded the study of Israel—and no less wildly misrepresents what can be said and written about Palestinians—polite denial is neither an adequate nor an intellectually respectable response. Let us not minimize the scope of this degradation. Students learning only this language graduate with a vocabulary that identifies Israel not simply as a force hostile to Palestinian interests but also as a major source of evil for the world. Earning cultural capital for their anti-Israel words and deeds, university professors, in increasing numbers, venture far outside their disciplinary training to propose boycotts against Israeli educational institutions in order to deny their students stipends and research opportunities. Not only are these activist faculty gatekeepers, they are also advancing their careers with their polemics published by highly ranked journals and by university presses whose peer review systems bend in service of political advocacy for an anti-Israel cause even as it cannot help but bestow an academic cachet on the work. Norms, once taken for granted by scholars, are either ignored or overridden if they transgress a line now drawn very clearly against finding anything positive to say about Israel. Two recent examples come to mind—a long article by Saree Makdisi in the prestigious literary journal Critical Inquiry, and Puar Jasbir's book The Right to Maim: Debility, Capacity, Disability, the first distorting the Israeli political system while the second hurls bizarre claims against the Jewish state for practicing a policy intended to destroy Palestinians by undermining their health and well-being. It does not take a legal specialist to provide a corrective...
Differences in nomenclature, regarding the legal reasoning of judex facti and judex juris decisions, occur in determining the act of taking part in a criminal act. This is due to different reasoning methods. The legal consideration approach to judex facti decisions, in verifying facts as norms, is performed lexically. The way the judge's logic works is by using deductive logic and verifying the facts of the defendant's actions to normalise elements that are merely restrictive. The judex juris decisions of judges and the judex facti legal judgments understand the act of participation in corruption case by using an inductive reasoning method. Judex juris decisions examine judex facti legal considerations by determining the major premise more extensively. Judges search for the legal principles underlying norms to verify the facts of the defendant's condition. The results of the verification and the conclusion of judex juris state that the defendant's actions are proven but there are no faults. Thus, judex facti decisions are cancelled and it is decided that the defendant is free from all legal charges.
Objective: The study aimed to explore the characteristics of auditory mismatch response (MMR) in hearing-impaired children on the day when the cochlear implant (CI) was started (power-up) and the speech processor was programmed, and to investigate the effects of wearing hearing aids (HAs) before cochlear implantation on the early stage of postoperative auditory cortex plasticity, providing some demonstrative data for the objective evaluation of postoperative early auditory ability in children who underwent cochlear implantation. Methods: The participants were 34 children with profound sensorineural hearing loss, who underwent cochlear implantation. The classical passive Oddball paradigm was adopted, using a pair of vowels which only have different lexical tones. The standard stimulus was /a2/ and the devious stimulus was /a4/. Results: 1) On the day of CI activation, the auditory MMR has been elicited in 30 children; the MMR incidence was 88%. 2) We observed both positive and negat)
This paper conducts a comparative study about four translations of sūrat alInshiqāq: Yousef Ali, Muhammad Hilali-Muhsin Khan, Pickthall and Mohammad Abdel Haleem. Multiple opinions of exposition have been provided to explore how, in certain ayas, the translators fail to find an appropriate equivalent. The translations' problems are categorized into lexical, stylistic and syntactic problems, whereas these categories also have sub-categories in order to clarify the gaps that might be encountered while translating the Qur'anic text. The problems are investigated through the theories of free and bound translation. Since religious texts, especially the sacred ones, are contextbased, they have different meanings which are not easy to tackle. In conclusion, the lexical, syntactic and stylistic norms of the target language fail to match those of the Qur’an discourse because these features are far from universal. Keywords: Religious translation, Untranslatability, Qur'an exposition.
The aim of the present research is to study features of verbalization of gender asymmetry and gender stereotypes in the Russian culture of language. Data of lesbian dating sites, as well as blogs, an interview of the famous people who are openly positioning themselves as representatives with atypical gender identification of the personality, serving as a material of this research, are analyzed. Thematic blocks are revealed, in which recipients define the gender identity and simulate a moral and value-oriented state through verbally transmitted (1) "values"; (2) "assessment"; (3) "feelings"; and (4) "interests". The article describes the grammatical forms of a masculine gender of nouns, adjectives and verbs pointing to neutral gender of individuals, which is not keeping within "Procrustean bed" of the standard norms of existence of a biological and social gender. The publication examines the European queer identity concepts of Elisabeth Grosz, Teresa de Lauretis and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick acquiring special relevance in connection with gender deconstruction and, as a result, mass legitimation ofsame-sex marriages in many countries of Europe and separate states of the USA. The characteristics of a generalized image of the atypical female language personality implemented with the help of the dominating lexical and syntactic means of the emotivity expression are noted. The conclusion can be drawn that in general the speech portrait of heroines meets typical gender expectations of women, it is emotionally charged thanks to colloquial, slangy lexicon, existence of constructions among which are units which underwent truncation; estimated negative lexicon; abbreviations; foreign-language lexicon; and neologisms. At the syntactic level the analyzed means of expressional syntax, nonjudgmental speech, despite stated earlier gender-neutral, give to the speech "womanlike nature", emotionality and randomness of thinking. Involvement in child-free subculture is noted that in general distinguishes representatives of lesbian culture from individuals of traditional feminine type, as a rule, of persons interested to leave posterity behind. According to observations, most of men androgynes have indistinct verbal limits of gender identity that demonstrates, first, lack of an exact term framework for people with gender asymmetry; secondly, informs on indistinct representations of own gender identity; and thirdly, allows identification of sexual roles of partners in the relationships.
The article deals with the characteristic feature of the period of language instability, namely the conflict between the norm and codification in one of the Russian language areas that is subject to greatest variation. The author analyses establishment of the new norm in the process of assigning grammatical category of gender to borrowed indeclinable nouns. The study of this lexical group shows that approximately half of the new words form gender according to the principle of semantic analogy. This fact allows us to maintain that in the Russian of the XXI c. there is a process of broadening in the sphere of application of the rule about assigning gender to indeclinable inanimate onyms and abbreviations. Previously having a limited sphere of application, now this rule also extends to indeclinable inanimate appellatives. However the action of the “older” norm, according to which indeclinable nouns were assigned neuter gender, is also manifested, creating conditions for word variation.
Despite extensive recent investigations of moral judgments, little is known about how negative judgments like blame might differ from positive judgments like praise. Drawing on theory from both social and moral cognition, the present studies identify and test potential asymmetries in the extremity and differentiatedness of blame as compared to praise. The amplified blame hypothesis predicts that people will assign greater blame for negative behaviors than praise for positive behaviors. The differentiated blame hypothesis predicts that, as compared to praise judgments, blame judgments will more finely differentiate among distinct mental states that precede action, such as thoughts, desires, and intentions. A series of studies—using varied stimulus sets and samples—together provide robust support for the differentiated blame hypothesis and somewhat weaker support for the amplified blame hypotheses. These results illustrate systematic asymmetries between blame and praise, generally revea)
THE PUBLICATION OF THE DOUGLAS FIR Group's (DFG, 2016) article reminded me of recurring paradigm debates in our field over the last 3 decades (e.g., Firth & Wagner, 1997, 2007; Zuengler & Miller, 2006). The essence of these debates revolves around the critical question of whether or not we should attribute primacy to the individual brain or the social world when exploring language learners’ learning processes. By their very nature, these paradigm debates are serious and have significant implications for research and practice, as they help to define what counts as legitimate second language acquisition (SLA) research. My colleagues often call the paradigms in these debates “bubbles,” which both envelop us and enable our intellectual pursuits. We pursue our intellectual interests through the bubble surrounding us, which often deflects reality into constructions. As a language teacher educator, I believe that the constructions in these paradigms should be put to the test by language learners and teachers in practice, so that we may recognize whether they constitute sensible solutions or responses to the challenges we face in an increasingly diverse world. For this reason, I believe that the DFG's proposal has significant implications for language teacher education, since it recommends “practical, innovative, and sustainable solutions that are responsive to the challenges of language teaching and learning in a multilingual world” (p. 20). In this commentary, I will first explain how my intellectual efforts so far have been related to the basic tenets in the DFG framework. Then I discuss how the framework, enriched by the collection of papers in this volume, presents both challenges and learning opportunities for language teachers. I conclude that transforming these challenges into learning opportunities will necessitate substantial reforms in many language teacher education programs. I welcome the publication of the DFG article on a transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual world because such a framework fits closely with the intellectual journey I myself have undertaken since my doctoral studies some years ago. Starting my academic career as a language learning strategy researcher, I have been interested not so much in strategies in and of themselves but in understanding why language learners adopt particular strategies in a given context (e.g., Gao, 2010). In that sense, my research on language learning strategies has always been transdisciplinary, drawing on sociocultural perspectives on language learning and debates about agency and structure in the social sciences (Layder, 1990) to inform my interpretation of learners’ strategic language learning narratives. In my research I portray language learners’ strategy use not only as a cognitive choice, but also as a choice facilitated or constrained by contextual conditions (e.g., Gao, 2007, 2010). To some extent, then, my multifaceted approach to language learners’ strategy use echoes the theoretical considerations captured by the DFG framework while applying them to a particular area of inquiry. At the same time, it is fair to say that, although the publication of my doctoral thesis as a research monograph was positively reviewed by some researchers in the field, overall, its ideas have not received much attention in the academic community. In part, this may be due to the fact that language learning strategy researchers face an almost insurmountable challenge posed by those advocating the replacement of the construct with self-regulated learning capacity (e.g., Rose et al., 2018; Tseng, Dörnyei, & Schmitt, 2006). But much larger issues are at play: Socializing with SLA researchers at major applied linguistics conferences frequently leaves me with the impression that my approach, at best, is alternative to more mainstream and dominant approaches, perhaps even marginal. Fortunately, after I became a language teacher educator that discomfort has gradually subsided—most likely because my new role challenged me to commit myself to conducting research that spoke more directly to the concerns of language teachers. Immersing myself in research with explicit pedagogical implications, I realized that language learning and teaching take place in a complex milieu, mediated by a variety of conditions and relationships within and beyond the confines of classroom walls. It is well known that many of these are beyond the teachers’ control. And yet, having been socialized into a professional culture that has long assigned responsibility for learner success to them, they are eager to find ‘best practices’ that would assure that success. With regard to motivation, for example, language teachers often look to teacher educators for ‘magic’ ways through which they might ‘trigger’ a redoubling of efforts on the part of their learners. However, even though motivation is indeed a key factor in explaining variations in learners’ achievements (Boo, Dörnyei, & Ryan, 2015), motivation is an extraordinarily multifaceted phenomenon, arising from the interaction between individual language learners’ beliefs and attitudes, input and influences from social agents (e.g., peers, parents, teachers) within the different social groups (or communities) to which they belong, as well as ideological discourses about learning at the macro-contextual level (Gao, 2010; Harvey, 2017; Lanvers, 2018). As I stated at the outset, discussions of paradigm shifts are hardly new in the language studies field. Even so, I welcome the DFG framework with its 10 research themes as a key intellectual resource underlying transdisciplinary, innovative research that can generate critical insights for language learners and teachers to improve their well-being. That positive assessment may, in part, stem from the fact that the DFG framework directly connects my work to some of the central debates in our field, rather than relegating it to the periphery. Far more important, however, is my belief that the DFG framework can serve as a pedagogical resource for language teachers thatenables them to position their teaching within the big picture of learning and teaching and, thereby, encourage them to re-commit themselves to supporting their own language learners by any means whatsoever. It also provides a guide for language teacher educators to help language teachers maneuver strategically in pursuit of professional development. In other words, the framework not only presents a research resource map that underpins holistic inquiries into “language learning and teaching” by “taking into account forces beyond individual learners” (DFG, 2016, p. 20); it also maps out the complexity of the learning and teaching that language teacher educators need to impart to language teachers for their professional development. The collection of studies in this issue can be approached from different perspectives, but as a language teacher educator I believe that they highlight at least four challenges for teacher educators in the preparation of language teachers: (a) the deficit discourses about language learners associated with the monolingualism bias in SLA research (Ortega, 2019, this issue), (b) integrating a broadened theorization of cognition in teaching (Ellis, 2019, this issue), (c) taking a usage-based approach to linguistics to inform pedagogical decisions (Hall, 2019, this issue; LaScotte & Tarone, 2019, this issue), and (d) becoming fully empowered agents in the pedagogical process (Larsen–Freeman, 2019, this issue). The first three challenges raise critical questions about why language teachers teach, how language learners learn (and hence how language can be taught), and what is to be taught. Properly addressed, language teacher education programs will present rich, meaningful learning opportunities that are essential to language teachers’ professional development as they learn the task of teaching in a multilingual world. The last challenge goes to the heart of language teachers’ professional development as the DFG framework envisions it. One of the most significant challenges in my career as a language teacher educator has been to help language teachers recognize the deleterious consequences of the reigning monolingual prejudice in SLA research, which has led to the enshrining of native speaker norms as the privileged target of all language learning and teaching. Perhaps such a goal is achievable by a select few learners in highly unusual circumstances and, most likely, even then at considerable costs (e.g., financial and social). But its dominance (for an example in the Chinese context, see Wang, 2015) based on a fundamental bias in favor of a small group of privileged language learners is extraordinarily difficult to address—much less resist—for researchers, teacher educators, teachers, and learners alike. Research conducted in Western,educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic contexts (“WEIRD” research) prides itself on producing complex and elaborate justifications and procedures that are intended to inform language teachers’ pedagogical decisions. But teachers in other contexts may find their arguments as well as their educational recommendations both unpersuasive and irrelevant, not least because of the glaring gap between the biases of such academic research and their own pedagogical reality. Even more important, by reducing the complex reality of multilingual competence to dichotomies like native and nonnative, monolingual and bilingual, they inflict additional, deeply disturbing insecurities beyond those that are already part of the complex endeavor of language learning and language use—and do so for both the multilingual learners as well as their teachers (cf. Ortega, 2019, this issue). Over the years I have found that it is ineffective to address the impact of deficit discourses on language teachers simply by changing the ways in which we describe language learners and learning, for example by changing “language barrier” to “language difference.” Without a fundamental shift in how teachers can understand the verynature of their professional work and, accordingly, the nature of their commitments and responsibilities, well-intentioned replacive words with positive meanings all too soon assume the same negative connotations that have pervaded the earlier deficit discourses. As suggested by Ortega, only when language teacher education programs incorporate social justice and equity into their core missions can we begin to tackle this deep-seated bias. That means, language teacher educators need more research that pertains to a myriad of aspects of language use and language learning as these describe the vast majority of language learners who do not belong to the over-studied multilingual elites. One obvious starting point for such research might be the multilingual teachers themselves who, around the globe, bring particular strengths to their work and—as we hear over and over again from their students—are role models that inspire and motivate, often for a lifetime. For years, language teachers have been urged to provide “authentic language” through “natural learning” (e.g., Widdowson, 1998, p. 705; original italic). However, language teachers “need to make language and language learning a reality for learners” (Widdowson, 1998, p. 715), a demand that draws attention to theorization about language cognition in context. By focusing on language learning within micro and macro contexts, the DFG framework presents a theorization of cognition as socially distributed and as taking place within a human body that connects cognition and the world. Individual learners’ language cognition is dependent on context and is enacted through learner action upon the context (e.g., Atkinson et al., 2018; Zuengler & Miller, 2006). This recognition underpins the growth of a variety of theories of language learning, including sociocultural perspectives (e.g., Lantolf, 2009), complex dynamic system theory (e.g., Larsen–Freeman, 1997), and usage-based approaches to language development (e.g., Ellis & Larsen–Freeman, 2006). With regard to language pedagogy development, these perspectives on language learning imply the necessity for language teachers to draw on what language learners are exposed to outside the classroom in order to develop meaningful pedagogical activities in the classroom, which will prepare them well for the task of using the language in real life. In other words, language teachers need to consider “frequent and rich participation in the second-language life worlds into which the learner ‘bricolages’ his or her way” (Ellis, 2019, this issue, p. 52) as both the starting and end points for language teaching activities within the classroom toward language learning and use. Considering the fact that many language learners (particularly those in low-resource situations) have few opportunities to use the language outside the classroom, it remains a critical task for language teachers to develop, create, and sustain learners’ meaningful access to these “second-language life worlds,” not least because doing so may help reduce inequity among language learners in the learning process. However, most language teacher education programs that I am aware of have yet to develop language teachers’ capacity to promote language use beyond the classroom in low-resource teaching contexts. The socially distributed nature of cognition, as outlined by Ellis, draws attention to the significance of the gaps that different language learners may experience in their exposure to the target language and their ultimate language learning achievement. This requires language teacher educators and language teachers to work out ways to address these gaps and minimize the impact of social inequity on language learners’ learning progress. The usage-based understanding of language, as one fundamental pillar of the DFG framework, presents another significant challenge for language teachers and language teacher educators. For years, we have engaged in debating form versus meaning in language teaching. But as Hall (2019, this issue) argues, a usage-based understanding of language necessitates fundamental shifts in conceptualizing a number of key constructs in language teaching, such as replacing “language competence” with “language repertoire,” and “language expertise” as well as “grammar” with “semiotic resources” and “semioticregisters.” Drawing on interactional linguistics, Hall (2019, this issue) presents grammatical practices as “shaped by actional turns…within interactional sequences” (p. 84), and conversation analysis as seeking to uncover “the publically witnessable universal infrastructure, as exhibited in the methods used by members to achieve social order” (p. 86). In light of such an understanding of language, many language teacher education programs will need to examine critically how they theorize language so that the programs can prepare language teachers with “theories of language that foreground meaning rather than structure” (Lantolf, 2009, p. 274). Among the consequences of such an approach will be that language teachers should encourage learners to deploy lexical and grammatical resources from different registers to establish their own voices or enact those of others, as revealed in LaScotte and Tarone's (2019, this issue) study on language learners’ differential development of complexity, accuracy, and fluency in different ‘voice’ environments. In sum, the articles in this collection present a coherent transdisciplinary framework, which entails significant challenges for language teachers and language teacher educators in the pursuit of a more equitable world through language education. To overcome these challenges, we must recognize language teachers as reflexive and reflective agents, who are able to critically evaluate knowledge resources and uncertain conditions before making pedagogical decisions that advance their professional ideals. That means, we need to understand how teacher agency underlies professional development. Larsen–Freeman (2019, this issue) enriches the Douglas Fir Group framework with a temporal element with regard to learner agency. That enables her to capture the dynamism of the framework as compared with the earlier, more flat and two-dimensional portrayal. Language teachers’ professional development, too, can be seen as a dynamic process emerging from interaction between teacher agency and contextual structures as outlined in the framework. While the DFG framework can be used as a resource to help language teachers appreciate the complexity and dynamism of language learning and teaching, it is also a roadmap for them to see how their professional learning might unfold in the specific contexts where they learn and teach. Depending on where we locate agency in the framework, agency can be theorized as capacity or phenomenon/doing (Priestley et al., 2012). If we place agency with “individuals engaging with others” in the framework, we may consider it as “the socio-culturally mediated capacity to act purposefully and reflectively on [one's] world” (Rogers & Wetzel, 2013, p. 63; see also Ahearn, 2001). Such a consideration acknowledges social contributions to the development and exercise of agency, but it may not be well suited to helping us to “identify agentic actions,” as agency and structure are mutually constitutive in this conceptualization (Hitlin & Elder, 2007, p. 173). For this reason, it is, perhaps, more appropriate to regard language teachers’ agency as phenomenon/doing, or something “achieved and not as merely … a capacity or possession of the individual” (Priestley et al., 2012, p. 197), a position that confirms the significance of adding Larsen–Freeman's (2019, this issue) temporal element to the DFG framework. Inevitably, its integration into language teacher education programs compels language teachers to critically examine and change their beliefs about language, learning, and teaching. The traditional emphasis on language structure in language teacher education programs does not help language teachers to prepare learners for using language structures as semiotic resources to create meanings and assert themselves. Rather, it creates an irresistibly tempting—though false—sense of security and authority for language teachers. Without the aid of deterministic language rules and orderly language development paths as these have been suggested by many SLA studies, language teachers will be called to “confront, resist and work out pedagogical conflicts” as well as “overcome unequal power relations” in professional practice, in which “teacher agency plays a key role” (Tao & Gao, 2017, p. 347). That means that we must recognize their “rights” to control and their “responsibility” to sustain their professional development for the task of language teaching, positions that are reflected in the DFG framework (see also, Johnson, 2006, p. 250). Since language teachers learn and teach in a broader milieu of preset conditions and prior experiences in particular contexts, their agentic responses may be manifest in the forms of compliance, resistance, and negotiation over the course of time. Language teacher educators and researchers need to critically examine and endeavor to change structural elements (e.g., conceptions of language learning and teaching endorsed by the powerful) that might have constrained language teachers’ learning and the application of new pedagogical ideas in a given teaching context. In other words, language teacher educators not only need to provide knowledge and experience to enable transformation among language teachers; they should also explore ways to create and sustain the contextual conditions that are conducive to changes in their learning and professional practice. Publication of the DFG (2016) article may be regarded as a in the development of what counts as SLA research. The framework can be seen as a point for a group of SLA researchers who on related to language teaching In my it also language teacher educators like me to how the framework can be used to inform the development of language teacher education programs by why we teach what we teach, and how we teach Language teacher education programs should on language teachers who are to social justice and equity in teaching, who are critically aware of the significant impact that contextual conditions may have on language learners’ learning, and who can help language learners develop semiotic resources to assert themselves in contexts. central tenets of dynamic complex system theory with a rich understanding of teacher agency may prepare language teacher educators and language teachers for a understanding of their own professional The DFG framework can also as a map to guide language teachers’ efforts to prepare themselves for the task of learning to create a more equitable world through language teaching. of us a difficult process of in which agency will a critical role in transforming our understanding and our pursuit of professional For the of a more equitable we must and
Introduction: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is gold-standard for investigating Degenerative Cervical Myelopathy (DCM), a disabling disease triggered by compression of the spinal cord following degenerative changes of adjacent structures. Quantifiable compression correlates poorly with disease and language describing compression in radiological reports is un-standardised. Study design: Retrospective chart review. Objectives: 1) Identify terminology in radiological reporting of cord compression and elucidate relationships between language and quantitative measures 2) Evaluate language’s ability to distinguish myelopathic from asymptomatic compression 3) Explore correlations between quantitative or qualitative features and symptom severity 4) Investigate the influence of quantitative and qualitative measures on surgical referrals. Methods: From all cervical spine MRIs conducted during one year at a tertiary centre (N = 1123), 166 patients had reported cord compression. For each sp)
The article discusses specific features of the anecdote as a speech genre, analyzes communicative-pragmatic principles of creating a comic effect in anecdotes based on the wordplay. It is noted that the concept of «anecdote», despite the fact that it is widely used in modern literary criticism and linguistics, does not have a single interpretation and a precise theoretical definition, which is explained by its genre uniqueness and complexity of a cognitive-pragmatic nature. It is emphasized that the most important part of the work of this genre is its finale, originally known to the narrator. It is the last climax phrase that contains the unexpected and unpredictable final semantic resolution that constitutes the anecdote as such. Among the features inherent in the actual anecdotal texts are: small volume, lack of authorship, reproducibility, indefinite chronotope, stereotypicality of plot schemes, relatively constant set of characters, ambivalence of the meaning of language units, intertextuality, situational functioning, etc. The dominant category of the anecdote text is minimalism, manifested in the choice of details, the number of heroes, laconic form, the volume of compositional components. It is stated that formation of the types of anecdotes took place along two lines: folk and literary. A modern anecdote, in contrast to the literary jokes of previous years, as a rule, is a speech genre, not a literary one, which determines its specificity. It is noted that anecdotes are divided into situational (subject, referential), in which the comic nature of the described situation is not related to the linguistic design, and language (linguistic), which are based on the playing out of certain linguistic phenomena. The comic effect in the latter is based on purely linguistic mechanisms and depends on the choice of the used speech means. An integral part of creating a comic effect in linguistic anecdotes is violation of certain norms, or incongruence, in the implementation of which the leading role is played by the language game. The game potential of phonetic, lexical, word-building, morphological and syntactic means, as well as precedent phenomena involved in speech works of this type are described. Particular attention is paid to punning outplaying of polysemy and various types of homonymy as one of the most popular means of creating a language joke. It is concluded that peculiarity of the game means, used for creating a humorous effect, lies in their function: they have an additional evaluative connotation, express different degrees of negative loading and take part in creating comic ambiguity in the statement.
As the most commonly used English in international economic and trade exchanges, Economic and Trade English has its unique linguistic norms and stylistic features. Economic and trade translation requires translators to have a strong sense of context and professionalism in economic and trade English. Its translation principles are stylistic suitability and lexical correspondence. Translators should use four-character structure, business formulas and sentence structure adjustment to guide translation practice. According to different types of texts, they should use unused terms accurately, so as to be faithful to the original text, express accurately and unify standard translation principles.
The author considers the creative approaches of contemporary journalists to solving the problem of literate introduction of the Ukrainian vocabulary into the language of mass media. It is noted that under the influence of the Russian language certain lexical units, the structure of which does not correspond to the Ukrainian norms of the creation of words, became established.
The article discusses the influence of speech acts on the formation of personality. The rules of speech etiquette are traced in the stream of speech and are perceived by the interlocutor as part of the education and culture of people. In this case, it becomes necessary to know some factors of the linguistic culture of the people. Speech etiquette for each native speaker has its own language form. In the speech etiquette of all the peoples of the world, it is possible to identify common features in all languages there are stable formulas of greeting and farewell, forms of respectful treatment of elders. Analyzing speech acts and highlighting the features of the communicative behavior of native speakers, the authors pay attention to speech etiquette as a set of norms and stereotypes of communication that have developed in society due to historical traditions and social structure. If native speakers do not follow the rules of verbal communication, then it is impossible to speak about a high level of language proficiency. Since speech etiquette emphasizes the culture and traditions of the people, it is necessary to take into account discrepancies in the speech actions of different nationalities, since each language has its own, formed system of addresses. Knowledge of the norms of speech etiquette of the country with a different sociocultural reality is the key to success in interpersonal and professional communication. Intercultural communication is a very complex and multidimensional process, therefore, only knowledge of grammatical structures and lexical content of the language is not enough to communicate between two native speakers who have an excellent linguistic culture. It is the linguisticcultural competence and knowledge of the norms of speech acts that can serve as a basis for communication between representatives of different countries. В статье рассматривается влияние речевых поступков на формирование личности. Правила речевого этикета прослеживаются в потоке речи и воспринимаются собеседником как часть воспитания и культуры людей. При этом возникает необходимость знания некоторых факторов языковой культуры народа. Речевой этикет для каждого носителя языка имеет свою языковую форму. В речевом этикете всех народов мира можно выделить общие черты, во всех языках существуют устойчивые формулы приветствия и прощания, формы уважительного обращения к старшим. Анализируя речевые поступки и выделяя особенности коммуникативного поведения носителей языка, авторы уделяют внимание именно речевому этикету как совокупности норм и стереотипов общения, сложившихся в социуме в силу исторических традиций, социального устройства. Если носители родного языка не соблюдают правила речевого общения, то говорить о высоком уровне владения языком невозможно. Поскольку речевой этикет подчёркивает культуру и традиции народа, необходимо учитывать расхождения в речевых поступках разных национальностей, так как в каждом языке существует своя сформировавшаяся система обращений. Знание норм речевого этикета страны с иной социально культурной действительностью является залогом успеха в межличностном и профессиональном общении. Межкультурная коммуникация очень сложный и многоаспектный процесс, поэтому только знания грамматических структур и лексического наполнения языка недостаточно для общения двух носителей языка, обладающих отличной языковой культурой. Именно лингвострановедческая компетенция и знание норм речевых поступков может послужить основой для общения представителей разных стран.
The revue analyzes a book dedicated to the problems of the Bulgarian dialects abroad, the Bulgarian literary language and its regional written norms, current problems occurring in the lexical and grammatical system of the Bulgarian.
The Routledge Handbook of language and culture represents a comprehensive study on the inextricable relationship between language and culture. It is structured into seven parts and 33 chapters. Part 1, Overview and historical background, by Farzad Sharifian, starts with an outline of the book and a synopsis of research on language and culture. The second chapter, John Leavitt’s Linguistic relativity: precursors and transformations discusses further the historical development of the concept of linguistic relativity, identifying different schools’ of thought views on the relation between language and culture. He also tries to demystify some misrepresentations held towards Boas, Sapir, and Whorf’ theories (pp. 24-26). Chapter 3, Ethnosyntax, by Anna Gladkova provides an overview of research on ethnosyntax, starting from the theoretical basis laid by Sapir and Whorf and investigates the differences between a narrow sense of ethnosyntax, which focuses on cultural meanings of various grammatical structures and a broader sense, which emphasises the pragmatic and cultural norms’ impact on the choice of grammatical structures. John Leavitt presents in the fourth chapter, titled Ethnosemantics, a historical account of research on meaning across cultures, introducing three traditions, i.e. ‘classical’ ethnosemantics (also referred to as ethnoscience or cognitive anthropology), Boasian cultural semantics (linguistically inspired anthropology) and Neohumboldtian comparative semantics (word-field theory, or content-oriented Linguistics). In Chapter 5, Goddard underlines the fact that ethnopragmatics investigates emic (or culture-internal) approaches to the use of different speech practices across various world languages, which accounts for the fact that there exists a connection between the cultural values or norms and the speech practices peculiar to a speech community. One of the key objectives of ethnopragmatics is to investigate ‘cultural key words’, i.e. words that encapsulate culturally construed concepts. The concept of ‘linguaculture’ (or languaculture) is tackled in Risager’s Chapter 6, Linguaculture: the language–culture nexus in transnational perspective. The author makes reference to American scholars that first introduced this notion, Paul Friedrich, who looks at language and culture as a single domain in which verbal aspects of culture are mingled with semantic meanings, and Michael Agar, for whom culture resides in language while language is loaded with culture. Risager himself brought forth a new global and transnational perspective on the concept of linguaculture, i.e. the use of language (linguistic practice) is seen as flows in people’s social networks and speech communities. These flows enhance as people migrate or learn new languages, in permanent dynamics. Lidia Tanaka’s Chapter 7, Language, gender, and culture deals with research on language, gender, and culture. According to her, the language-gender relationship has been studied by researchers from various fields, including psychology, linguistics, and anthropology, who mainly consider gender as a construct that preserves inequalities in society, with the help of language, too. Tanaka lists diachronically different approaches to language and gender, focusing on three specific ones: gender stereotyped linguistic resources, semantically, pragmatically or lexically designated language features (including register) and gender-based spoken discourse strategies (talking-time imbalances or interruptions). In Chapter 8, Language, culture, and context, Istvan Kecskes delves into the relationship between language, culture, and context from a socio-cognitive perspective. The author considers culture to be a set of shared knowledge structures that encapsulate the values, norms, and customs that the members of a society have in common. According to him, both language and context are rooted in culture and carriers of it, though reflecting culture in a different way. Language encodes past experience with different contexts, whereas context reflects present experience. The author also provides relevant examples of formulaic language that demonstrate the functioning of both types of context, within the larger interplay between language, culture, and context. Sara Miller’s Chapter 9, Language, culture, and politeness reviews traditional approaches to politeness research, with particular attention given to ‘discursive approach’ to politeness. Much along the lines of the previous chapter, Miller stresses the role of context in judgements of (im)polite language, maintaining that individuals represent active agents who challenge and negotiate cultural as well as linguistic norms in actual communicative contexts. Chapter 10, Language, culture, and interaction, by Peter Eglin focuses on language, culture and interaction from the perspective of the correspondence theory of meaning. According to him, abstracting language and culture from their current uses, as if they were not interdependent would not lead to an understanding of words’ true meaning. David Kronenfeld introduces in Chapter 11, Culture and kinship language, a review of research on culture and kinship language, starting with linguistic anthropology. He explains two formal analytic definitional systems of kinship terms: the semantic (distinctions between kin categories, i.e. father vs mother) and pragmatic (interrelations between referents of kin terms, i.e. ‘nephew’ = ‘child of a sibling’). Chapter 12, Cultural semiotics, by Peeter Torop deals with the field of ‘semiotics of culture’, which may refer either to methodological instrument, to a whole array of methods or to a sub-discipline of general semiotics. In this last respect, it investigates cultures as a form of human symbolic activity, as well as a system of cultural languages (i.e. sign systems). Language, as “the preserver of the culture’s collective experience and the reflector of its creativity” represents an essential component of cultural semiotics, being a major sign system. Nigel Armstrong, in Chapter 13, Culture and translation, tackles the interrelation between language, culture, and translation, with an emphasis on the complexities entailed by translation of culturally laden aspects. In his opinion, culture has a double-sided dimension: the anthropological sense (referring to practices and traditions which characterise a community) and a narrower sense, related to artistic endeavours. However, both sides of culture permeate language at all levels. Chapter 14, Language, culture, and identity, by Sandra Schecter tackles several approaches to research on language, culture, and identity: social anthropological (the limits at play in the social construction of differences between various groups of people), sociocultural (the interplay between an individual’s various identities, which can be both externally and internally construed, in sociocultural contexts), participatory-relational (the manner in which individuals create their social–linguistic identities). Patrick McConvell, in Chapter 15, Language and culture history: the contribution of linguistic prehistory reviews research in this field where historical linguistic evidence is exploited in the reconstruction and understanding of prehistoric cultures. He makes an account of research in linguistic prehistory, with a focus on proto- and early Indo-European cultures, on several North American language families, on Africa, Australian, and Austronesian Aboriginal languages. McConvell also underlines the importance of interdisciplinary research in this area, which greatly benefits from studies in other disciplines, such as archaeology, palaeobiology, or biological genetics. Part four starts with Ning Yu’s Chapter 16, Embodiment, culture, and language, which gives an account of theory and research on the interplay between language, culture, and body, as seen from the standpoint of Cultural Linguistics. Yu presents a survey of embodiment (in embodied cognition research) from a multidisciplinary perspective, starting with the rather universalistic Conceptual Metaphor Theory. On the other hand, Cultural Linguistics has concentrated on the role played by culture in shaping embodied language, as various cultures conceptualise body and bodily experience in different ways. Chapter 17, Culture and language processing, by Crystal Robinson and Jeanette Altarriba deals with research in the field of how culture influence language processing, in particular in the case of bilingualism and emotion, alongside language and memory. Clearly, the linguistic and cultural character of each individual’s background has to be considered as a variable in research on cognition and cognitive processing. Frank Polzenhagen and Xiaoyan Xia, in Chapter 18, Language, culture, and prototypicality bring forth a survey of prototypicality across different disciplines, including cognitive linguistics and cognitive psychology. According to them, linguistic prototypes play a critical part in social (re-)cognition, as they are socially diagnostic and function as linguistic identity markers. Moreover, individuals may develop ‘culturally blended concepts’ as a result of exposure to several systems of conceptual categorisation, especially in the case of L2 learning (language-contact or culture-contact situations). In Chapter 19, Colour language, thought, and culture, Don Dedrick investigates the issue of the colour words in different languages and how these influence cognition, a question that has been addressed by researchers from various disciplines, such as anthropology, linguistics, cognitive psychology, or neuroscience. He cannot but observe the constant debate in this respect, and he argues that it is indeed difficult to reach consensus, as colour language occasionally reveals effects of language on thought and, at other times, it is impervious to such effects. Chapter 20, Language, culture, and spatial cognition, by Penelope Brown
Drawing on Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari’s analysis of language and literature, formulated in Kafka: pour une littérature mineure (1975), Mille plateaux (1980) and elsewhere, this article pursues the idea that certain forms of language, such as national languages or major literary discourses, might be conceptualized as states. Each operating as a locus of power, these forms of language codify regulatory rules (grammatical, lexical or stylistic, for example) that serve to stake out the boundaries of their territories; adherence to these rules and norms subsequently identifies belonging or non-belonging to a given linguistic or literary community. Concomitant with the notion of the linguistic state is the notion of linguistic statelessness, which might describe a general sense of alienation within language, such as that produced by the defamiliarizing effects of poetic discourse, or a more localized sense, prompted by the socio-political situation of certain marginalized, regional languages. Taking Deleuze and Guattari’s notion of ‘déterritorialisation’ as a point of departure, this article explores how certain forms of literature dismantle or disrupt dominant linguistic codes, pointing to a decentralized position outside of the established state. Here, literature involves a movement outside of a given linguistic territory, prompting a kind of statelessness within language. Having elaborated these notions of ‘state’ and ‘statelessness’, ‘territories’ and ‘deterritorialisation’ in greater detail, the article traces their configuration in the work of the contemporary French poet, Olivier Cadiot. It considers Cadiot’s first collection of poetry, L’art poétic’ (1988), and then his collaboration with the musician Rodolphe Burger on the album Welche: On n’est pas indiens c’est dommage (2000). In both instances, Cadiot uses ready-made language, employing cut-ups and sampling techniques that rework dominant discourses, deterritorializing them and making them ‘minor’.
The problem of language accuracy in publicistic texts hasn’t lost its actuality due to the great number of deviations from the language norms. The analysis of journalistic materials, which deal with the cultural and educational topics, has demonstrated that the language norms are broken in them rather often. The objective of the research is to systematize the most frequently used mistakes in the journalistic materials on cultural-linguistic topics, and to define the reasons of their occurrence. For reaching this objective 85 articles and interviews devoted to the issues of language policy and culture of speech taken from popular Internet publicistic sources were chosen and analyzed. The number of collected mistakes (anormative lexis) is over 400. The following methods were used during the research of the selected material: the method of entire selection for choosing the texts and collecting the examples of anormative lexis from cross-media sources; the descriptive method for defining the essence of deviation from the language norm and for finding the reasons of this phenomenon; the methods of analysis and synthesis for systematizing and classifying the selected anormative lexis. The fulfilled research allows to assert that the publicistic texts devoted to cultural-linguistic issues contain less number of norm deviations than texts of other thematic spheres. Thus, they contain less number of mistakes in usage of paronyms, there were no cases of inappropriate usage of little known terms and rarely used words. However, due to the influence of the Russian language the frequency of word-building and semantic loan translation is still high. It can be explained by the lack of clear delimitation of two languages in the consciousness of texts’ authors. The permanent improvement of language competence of journalists and editors, paying attention to the complicated examples of word spelling and to the usage of definite lexical units will promote thorough improvement of language culture of mass media staff.
We tested the hypothesis that phonosemantic iconicity––i.e., a motivated resonance of sound and meaning––might not only be found on the level of individual words or entire texts, but also in word combinations such that the meaning of a target word is iconically expressed, or highlighted, in the phonetic properties of its immediate verbal context. To this end, we extracted single lines from German poems that all include a word designating high or low dominance, such as large or small, strong or weak, etc. Based on insights from previous studies, we expected to find more vowels with a relatively short distance between the first two formants (low formant dispersion) in the immediate context of words expressing high physical or social dominance than in the context of words expressing low dominance. Our findings support this hypothesis, suggesting that neighboring words can form iconic dyads in which the meaning of one word is sound-iconically reflected in the phonetic properties of adjace)
The Argot language is one of the standard varieties of language that is formed among young people or a group of delinquents. Each social group has its own terms and expressions that must be learned in order to enter that group. Argot language is not separate from the language. Rather, it is one of its various varieties. This language represents a heterogeneous society, with each group having an impact on language. One can argue beyond this, claiming that the difference between each Argot language and the language commonly depends on the group attribute that uses this Argot language. The more different these groups are, the more they use different language forms to establish and maintain a relationship with the linguistic community. Young people form a large part of the active population of our community and the tendency towards peers and differences with adults are important features of this group. They have a particular language system that consists of the norms, values, behaviors and the core of their subculture. It is a secret code and a special communication symbol that transmits messages and creates certain rules and behaviors. Therefore, young people have their own subculture and use special vocabulary. The use of these vocabulary by young people and their influence on the youth subculture has created a certain verbal and non-verbal communication among young people that requires a scientific review. Groups and circles of friends, SMS, social networking messages, television movies, virtual social media, print media such as fictional characters, borrowing from other languages, and other forms of creativity are the means for dissemination of these words. The purpose of this paper is to identify semantic relations in the secret language within the framework of the theory of constructivism. Constructive semantics is one of the most important methods of achieving analysis using structuralism theory. In this view, the network language is one of the systematic relationships. Structural meanings refer to what the equivalent of a semantic unit is and how they are connected. The constructive semantic label is usually limited to lexical semantics. One of the most fundamental and general principles of constructivist linguistics is that languages, systems, and sub-systems or their constituent levels –grammatical, lexical, and phoneme levels– are interdependent. An important aspect of lexical semantics is how semantic relations of vocabulary are with each other; in particular, the discovery of the four classes of semantic relations, opposition, hyponymy, synonymy, and member-collection is important. Semantic Relationship is the relationship between lexical categories with other vocabulary, which confronts the speaker with the choice of different lexical categories. This term has different types. In other words, the meaning of the semantic relation is that the language has a semantic structure and the words are related in groups. Of course, these groups are formed on the basis of the semantic relations between the words. According to the tradition of studying meaning, these relations are in the semantic system of language between concepts that at first glance may seem independent, but have a close connection with each other, which is sometimes impossible to distinguish them from one another. Conceptual relationships have two types. Some of them are substitutions, and the others are synthetic, or, according to the famous statement, according to the Saussure’s attitude, is a function of substitution and conjunction. The substitution relationships between concepts arise among members of a grammatical category and with their replacement. This category of conceptual relationships, typically and not necessarily, consists of words from various grammatical categories that together create well-formedness. In order to achieve the purpose of the article, we first discuss the categories of semantic, synonymy, polysemy, opposition, hyponymy, meronymy, collocation, portion-mass, member-collection, homophony and homography. After processing and identifying these relationships in the Argot language vocabulary derived from an interview of the 15-30 year old young people in Tehran subway, as well as the Persian Dictionary of Argot of Samai’s work, the frequency of each semantic relationship was determined. The sample size is 1507 words; it has been extracted by two methods of documenting the Persian Dictionary of Argot and a researcher-made interview with a Snowball Sampling method. After collecting and deletion, the words were classified according to their nature and meaning in fourteen semantic areas. These classes include tools and objects, automobiles, moods, ethics and behavior, secret communication, the condition of organs, numbers, organs, eating and drinking, people, actions, opiates, clothing and places. The information of each word includes the semantic domain, the concept, the lexical entry and the Encyclopedia meaning. In addition to identifying semantic domains, the concept of each lexical category was also identified. Because the creators of the Argot language vocabulary use or create these words in an attempt to keep secrets hidden within a group of their inherent knowledge, the words reference may be different from these concepts. Then, the semantic relations of lexical data in each area were determined by qualitative content analysis method. The question of this research is if semantic relations exist in the secret language and what the relationship between the highest and lowest frequencies of semantic relations is. The results of the derivation of semantic analysis show that the highest and lowest lexical frequencies belong to the domains of people and clothing, respectively. Also, synonymy with the frequency of 63.05% has the highest semantic and homography with the frequency of 0.11% has the least semantic relation. The high frequency of synonymy relation in the vocabulary of this language represents the main reason for the use of Argot language; that is, to hide the meaning of these words. If these meanings are revealed to others, new terms replaces the previous words.
The volume collects articles which discuss complexity, conventionality and creativity in the English language from perspectives as diverse as specialised discourse, language teaching and learning, language varieties, lexical creativity, stylistics, knowledge dissemination through the media and audio-visual translation. It offers a multifaceted picture of the ways in which opposing forces exerted by conventionality and creativity contribute to shaping all levels of the linguistic system. The interpretive paradigm is offered by the theory of complex systems, a rich research framework attempting to describe and explain the dynamics which emerge in the many forms of situational adaptation of natural systems. Norms and conventions are, in fact, constantly exploited and manipulated through the creative behaviour of language users. This may lead to unpredictable synchronic effects and variation and, ultimately, to diachronic innovation.
ABSTRAK Bahasa merupakan sebuah media perantara bagi manusia untuk saling berkomunikasi. Dimungkinkan adanya perbedaan bahasa terhadap gender yang berbeda dalam hal pilihan kata atau bagaimana bahasa itu disampaikan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa lexical hedges tindak tutur representatif pemeran utama perempuan pada film Sweet 20 dan Orang Kaya Baru. Pemilihan film-film tersebut disebabkan karena film-film tersebut dimainkan oleh pemeran utama perempuan. Film Sweet 20 ditulis oleh penulis skenario wanita sedangkan Film Orang Kaya Baru ditulis oleh penulis skenario pria. Data-data di penelitian ini dianalisis menggunakan analisis wacana dan teori (S) Setting and scene, (P) Participants, (E) End, (A) Act sequence, (K) Key, (I) Instrumentalities, (N) Norms of interaction and interpretation, (G) Genre, Hymes (1974). Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat empat dari 7 kategori lexical hedges yang ditemukan dalam kedua Film tersebut, yaitu Modal Auxiliary Verb, If Clause, Approximator of Degree, Quantity, and Time dan Introductory Phrases. Dari Film Sweet 20 ditemukan 49 dari 149 ujaran yang mengandung lexical hedges dalam tindak tutur representatif, sedangkan dalam Film Orang Kaya Baru ditemukan 16 dari 68 ujaran yang mengandung lexical hedges dalam tindak tutur representatif. Penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa terdapat 32,89% lexical hedges yang digunakan oleh pemeran utama wanita di Film Sweet 20, dan terdapat 23,53% lexical hedges yang digunakan oleh pemeran utama wanita di Film Orang Kaya Baru. Kemudian, menggunakan teori SPEAKING disimpulkan bahwa Film Sweet 20 memiliki latar dan mitra tutur yang beragam dibandingkan dengan Film Orang Kaya Baru yang berlatar di tempat yang hampir semuanya sama dan dengan mitra tutur yang sama pula. ABSTRACT Language is a medium of communication for every human being. It may differ between different gender in terms of the words or how it is delivered. This study is aimed at analyzing lexical hedges in the representative speech act of the main woman character, especially in Sweet 20 and Orang Kaya Baru Movie. The selection of this movie is because it is written by a woman writer. Therefore, the focus of this study is on the lexical hedges which are well-known as woman language. This study employs qualitative research method. This study aims to analyze the lexical hedges of the speech acts of the female lead actors in the film Sweet 20 and Orang Kaya Baru. The selection of these films was caused by the films being played by the female lead. The Sweet 20 film is written by a female screenwriter while the film Orang Kaya Baru is written by a male screenwriter. The data in this study were analyzed using discourse analysis and theory (S) Settings and scenes, (P) Participants, (E) End, (A) Act sequences, (K) Key, (I) Instrumentalities, (N) Norms of interaction and interpretation, (G) Genre, Hymes (1974). The results of this study indicate that there are four of the 7 categories of lexical hedges found in the two movies, namely Capital Auxiliary Verb, If Clause, Approximator of Degree, Quantity, and Time, as well as Introductory Phrases. From the Sweet 20 Movie, 49 of 149 utterances containing lexical hedges were found in representative speech acts, while in the Orang Kaya Baru Movie, 16 of 68 utterances containing lexical hedges were found in representative speech acts. This study concludes that there were 32.89% of the lexical hedges used by the female lead in Sweet 20 Movie, and 23.53% of the lexical hedges used by the female lead in Orang Kaya Baru Movie. Then, through the use of SPEAKING theory, it was concluded that the Sweet 20 Movie has a more diverse settings and speech partners compared to the Orang Kaya Baru movie in which almost all the places are the same and so are the speech partners.
The present article studies peculiarities of colloquial vocabulary of English, Russian and French languages on the material of fictional texts and their translation, particularly works by S. Maugham and their translation into Russian and French. Special attention is paid to the problem of preserving stylistic component when translating from one language into another. Since the languages demonstrate their own specific features in the aspect of word choice determined by cultural nature, development of functional styles and peculiarities of linguistic and stylistic norms, translators have to face certain difficulties when transferring the source text into another language. One of the problems in this aspect is that translator has to find not only corresponding lexical or phraseological units to preserve semantic components of the original, but also follow the stylistic mode of the text and at the same time do not shift away from stylistic norms of the target language. The article shows how translators cope with this problem and try to solve both tasks.
The article analyzes the lexical content of the concept of “tolerance” in the materials published on the pages of high-quality Russian press, presented by “Nezavisimaya Gazeta”, “Literaturnaya Gazeta” and “Kommersant” newspaper. The word “tolerance” means “patience” at the level of lexical meaning are contradictory. This is due to the fact that the scientific literature treats tolerance and patience differently – from synonymy to complete opposition. The presence of the word in the media text “encourages” it to take the ideological orientation of the General public context. Because of the arising of the topical connotations of tolerance of the phenomenon may go to tolerance is the word. As a complex interdisciplinary category “tolerance” in periodicals functions in different discourses and with different evaluation characteristics. Its presence on the pages of print media is often supplemented by certain lexical markers that do not affect the connotations: “political correctness”, “multiculturalism”, “European values”, “globalization”. The semantic content of tolerance in media texts is expressed by associative rows and oppositions, while many lexemes can simultaneously be identified with tolerance and opposed to it. These include: “respect”, “understanding”, “goodwill”, “indifference”, “alienation”, “internationalism”. In texts with a negative assessment of tolerance, the semantic content of the concept is supplemented by the following components: indifferentism, the lack of the concept of norm and pathology, the destruction of traditional norms and values, the loss of national identity. This kind of tolerance, including at the conceptual level, in media journalism is opposed to the primordial Russian ideas about the spiritual values of life. The lexical component of the category “tolerance” in the press reflects the peculiarities of its functioning in the modern linguistic picture and socio-political space of Russia. The texts of high-quality print media provide meaningful language material not only for the philological study of the category of “tolerance”, but also for its interdisciplinary development. At the same time, interdisciplinary comments are necessary as a broad (near and far) context and in the immanent study of language material relating to such an urgent problem as tolerance.
The article focuses on the formation of future Ukrainian language and literature teachers stylistic competence. Ukrainian and foreign linguodidactic researchers achievements are theoretical generalized. The attempts to determine the membership of students-philologists stylistic competence are analyzed. Based on the analysis and synthesis of scientific sources, the notion of stylistic competence of the future Ukrainian language and literature teacher as a multicomponent and dynamic personality ability is learned, which is the result of teaching the Ukrainian language Stylistics, in particular the mastering of knowledge in Stylistics, the mastery of stylistic skills and abilities, the presence of motivational and value attitudes, and behavioral norms, as well as their experience in designing stylistically completed text in oral and written forms, used I linguistic resources for the purpose, conditions and targeted communication guidelines, the implementation of research exploration and future educational activities. The components of stylistic competence according to psychological factors are determined by motivational, knowledge (cognitive), activity, value, emotional, and reflective components. According to the content it is necessary to speak about the generalistic (Stylistics general concepts and categories assimilation) and level-style phonetic-stylistic, lexical-stylistic (lexical-stylistic and phraseological-stylistic), grammatical-stylistic (word-and-stylistic, morphological-stylistic, syntactically-stylistic) components. According to the activity features stylistic competence components are characterized: linguistic, communicative, self-educational, scientific research, methodical.
On the results of the linguistic analysis of the text of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the requirements that are imposed by legal discourse to the language of legal documents the authors reveal a set of obligatory characteristics of the language of the legal document, including definiteness, accuracy, clearness, stylistic neutrality, and language correctness. Application of these characteristics to assessing the quality of the text of Russian Constitution lead to finding some contextual gaps which might cause difficulties in understanding of some provisions in the basic law of the country. Violations of the accuracy and clarity of statements include those provisions of the Constitution in which lexical units are implemented in different meanings. In such cases, the distortion of meaning is possible at the stage of understanding (interpretation) of the verbal form. The articles of the Constitution also reveal a violation of clarity, which is accompanied by legal and linguistic uncertainty. The article provides examples of formulations that do not comply with the rules and norms of the use of language means in legal acts, as well as proposed ways to overcome these inconsistencies. It is argued that the development and application of a special linguistic methodology focused on communicative and rhetorical analysis of legally significant texts will allow more effective linguistic interpretation of normative legal acts, including the Constitution of the Russian Federation, as well as ensure uniformity of their application.
The given article deals with the research of the examples of lexicalsemantic interference of English and Russian in the field of professional-oriented translation. The study of interference in the framework of technical translation remains relevant in connection with the fact that the translation of technical literature requires knowledge not only of the basics of translation, but also of professional knowledge in a particular branch of science and technology. The article is aimed to analyze the characteristics of lexical-semantic interference in teaching translation in a language university. The methods of the experiment (collection of practical research material) and analysis (quantitative and semantic analysis of the materials obtained) are used in the research. The materials of the linguistic experiment allowed us to select some examples of the most significant violations of the lexical-semantic norms of the Russian language when translating commonly used terms in an Englishlanguage technical text. The results of the study revealed the main characteristics of lexical-semantic interference in the translation of a technical text from the point of view of the divergence of semantics of commonly used vocabulary in the context of professional-oriented translation. The results of the study can be used in the study of English, in teaching various aspects of translation, in studying issues of general linguistics and theory of language.
With the rapid development of the internet, social media has become an essential tool for getting information, and attracted a large number of people join the social media platforms because of its low cost, accessibility and amazing content. It greatly enriches our life. However, its rapid development and widespread also have provided an excellent convenience for the range of fake news, people are constantly exposed to fake news and suffer from it all the time. Fake news usually uses hyperbole to catch people’s eyes with dishonest intention. More importantly, it often misleads the reader and causes people to have wrong perceptions of society. It has the potential for negative impacts on society and individuals. Therefore, it is significative research on detecting fake news. In the paper, we built a model named SMHA-CNN (Self Multi-Head Attention-based Convolutional Neural Networks) that can judge the authenticity of news with high accuracy based only on content by using convolutional )
Approaching issues through the lens of nonnegotiable values increases the perceived intractability of debate (Baron & Spranca in Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 70, 1–16, 1997), while focusing on the concrete consequences of policies instead results in the moderation of extreme opinions (Fernbach, Rogers, Fox, & Sloman in Psychological Science, 24, 939–946, 2013) and a greater likelihood of conflict resolution (Baron & Leshner in Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 6, 183–194, 2000). Using comments on the popular social media platform Reddit from January 2006 until September 2017, we showed how changes in the framing of same-sex marriage in public discourse relate to changes in public opinion. We used a topic model to show that the contributions of certain protected-values-based topics to the debate (religious arguments and freedom of opinion) increased prior to the emergence of a public consensus in support of same-sex marriage (Gallup, 2017), and declined afterward. In contrast, the discussion of certain consequentialist topics (the impact of politicians’ stance and same-sex marriage as a matter of policy) showed the opposite pattern. Our results reinforce the meaningfulness of protected values and consequentialism as relevant dimensions for describing public discourse and highlight the usefulness of unsupervised machine-learning methods in tackling questions about social attitude change.
It analyzes the literary and journalistic work of ngel de Campo (1868-1908) and the various phonetic, morphosyntactic and lexical records that appear in it both in dialogues and in the different narrative voices in order to see if its vitality continues in the Mexican dialect current or has followed other courses. The analyzed phenomena express the popular and cultured linguistic norms of the Spanish that was spoken in Mexico City at the end of the XIX century and the beginning of the XX, thanks to the record that the author makes especially of the marginalized social classes of the Mexican capital.
The article documents cases of grammatical, phonetic and lexical “irregularities” occurring in modern Russian. The conclusions are based on analysis of the National Corpus of the Russian Language and internet queries. The author pays special attention to phrases indicating time relations: “for some time” / “after what time”. It is noted that there is an “older” and “younger” standard for using collocations with the lexeme „time” and prepositions, and the change in the norm resulted from the transition from treating space-time as an abstract, uniform chronotope to the idea of time as a discrete quantity, i.e. certain fragmented, countable sections (century, year, month, day, hour, minute, second). Research has shown that discrete forms denoting time began to dominate from the mid-nineteenth century, which is related to the changes in the image of the world taking place at that time. The old ways of speaking about time, however, still appear in modern Russian. The article shows that other lexical and inflectional archaisms (e.g. short forms of adjectives) are also returning to modern speech. This can be considered a manifestation of social linguistic memory, which involves having the ability to recall and use old forms or meanings, according to norms that used to be applied in the past. The author proposes that this phenomenon be called “spontaneous recurrence of the norm”. It is claimed that such recurrence of the old norm may be caused either by speakers’ ignorance of the current norm or by their desire for a “retro” style that results from fashion or manners. It could also be a manifestation of “language refreshment” through the activation of speech memory, or retrieving former forms and old standards out of the “subconscious” of language users.
This study analyzes one of the periods of the Ukrainian electric power engineering system development (period of distortion) with the purpose of detecting typical errors in translation of terminology from Russian into Ukrainian. To date, scientific and academic literatures remain Russified; a violation of linguistic norms on the lexical and derivational levels is quite common. We consider that recommendations of linguists concerning academic and technical translations will be valuable for specialist in the electric power industry and will contribute to a harmonious development of Ukrainian electric power engineering terminology.
The article explores the problems of lexical and grammatical and specially legal interpretation of certain criminal procedural norms, in particular, those that regulate the victim's right to procedural communication in criminal proceedings. It is noted that the guiding principle of lawful interpretation is the principle of dialogical communication, where dialogue is understood as a dynamic and constructive way of thinking, creating, interpreting, leading from the analysis of legal and technical errors of legal norms to effective law-making and enforcement and developing in a spiral, because every dialogue must continue the previous ones and prepare the next ones.The notion of a lawful interpretation of a sectoral (criminal-procedural) legal norm is defined asa special independent form of official and informal interpretation, an actual need in which it exists before, during and after the application of the criminal-procedural norm, and is intended to ensure its interpretative evolution for the sake of effective legalization.It is emphasized that the importance and necessity of lexical and grammatical and special-legal interpretation is dictated by: the presence of gaps in sectoral (criminal-procedural) legislation; the existence of conflicts in sectoral (criminal procedural) legislation; availability of valuation concepts in sectoral (criminal procedural) legislation; the presence of issues related to legal and technical errors in sectoral (criminal) law; the presence of problems of the degree of legal regulation of the compositional construction of criminal procedural norms; the presence of issues related to the appeal to the linguistic structural elements of the criminal procedural norm.
⚠️ This version of spaCy requires downloading <strong>new models</strong>. You can use the <code>spacy validate</code> command to find out which models need updating, and print update instructions. If you've been training <strong>your own models</strong>, you'll need to <strong>retrain them</strong> with the new version. ✨ New features and improvements Tagger, Parser, NER and Text Categorizer <strong>NEW:</strong> Experimental ULMFit/BERT/Elmo-like pretraining (see #2931) via the new <code>spacy pretrain</code> command. This pre-trains the CNN using BERT's cloze task. A new trick we're calling <em>Language Modelling with Approximate Outputs</em> is used to apply the pre-training to smaller models. The pre-training outputs CNN and embedding weights that can be used in <code>spacy train</code>, using the new <code>-t2v</code> argument. <strong>NEW:</strong> Allow parser to do joint word segmentation and parsing. If you pass in data where the tokenizer over-segments, the parser now learns to merge the tokens. Make parser, tagger and NER faster, through better hyperparameters. Add simpler, GPU-friendly option to <code>TextCategorizer</code>, and allow setting <code>exclusive_classes</code> and <code>architecture</code> arguments on initialization. Add <code>EntityRecognizer.labels</code> property. Remove document length limit during training, by implementing faster Levenshtein alignment. Use Thinc v7.0, which defaults to single-thread with fast <code>blis</code> kernel for matrix multiplication. Parallelisation should be performed at the task level, e.g. by running more containers. Models & Language Data <strong>NEW:</strong> 2-3 times faster tokenization across all languages at the same accuracy! <strong>NEW:</strong> Small accuracy improvements for parsing, tagging and NER for 6+ languages. <strong>NEW:</strong> The English and German models are now available under the MIT license. <strong>NEW:</strong> Statistical models for Greek. <strong>NEW:</strong> Alpha support for Tamil, Ukrainian and Kannada, and base language classes for Afrikaans, Bulgarian, Czech, Icelandic, Lithuanian, Latvian, Slovak, Slovenian and Albanian. Improve loading time of <code>French</code> by ~30%. Add <code>Vocab.writing_system</code> (populated via the language data) to expose settings like writing direction. CLI <strong>NEW:</strong> <code>pretrain</code> command for ULMFit/BERT/Elmo-like pretraining (see #2931). <strong>NEW:</strong> New <code>ud-train</code> command, to train and evaluate using the CoNLL 2017 shared task data. Check if model is already installed before downloading it via <code>spacy download</code>. Pass additional arguments of <code>download</code> command to <code>pip</code> to customise installation. Improve <code>train</code> command by letting <code>GoldCorpus</code> stream data, instead of loading into memory. Improve <code>init-model</code> command, including support for lexical attributes and word-vectors, using a variety of formats. This replaces the <code>spacy vocab</code> command, which is now deprecated. Add support for multi-task objectives to <code>train</code> command. Add support for data-augmentation to <code>train</code> command. Other <strong>NEW:</strong> Enhanced pattern API for rule-based <code>Matcher</code> (see #1971). <strong>NEW:</strong> <code>Doc.retokenize</code> context manager for merging and splitting tokens more efficiently. <strong>NEW:</strong> Add support for custom pipeline component factories via entry points (#2348). <strong>NEW:</strong> Implement fastText vectors with subword features. <strong>NEW:</strong> Built-in rule-based NER component to add entities based on match patterns (see #2513). <strong>NEW:</strong> Allow <code>PhraseMatcher</code> to match on token attributes other than <code>ORTH</code>, e.g. <code>LOWER</code> (for case-insensitive matching) or even <code>POS</code> or <code>TAG</code>. <strong>NEW:</strong> Replace <code>ujson</code>, <code>msgpack</code>, <code>msgpack-numpy</code>, <code>pickle</code>, <code>cloudpickle</code> and <code>dill</code> with our own package <code>srsly</code> to centralise dependencies and allow binary wheels. <strong>NEW:</strong> <code>Doc.to_json()</code> method which outputs data in spaCy's training format. This will be the only place where the format is hard-coded (see #2932). <strong>NEW:</strong> Built-in <code>EntityRuler</code> component to make it easier to build rule-based NER and combinations of statistical and rule-based systems. <strong>NEW:</strong> <code>gold.spans_from_biluo_tags</code> helper that returns <code>Span</code> objects, e.g. to overwrite the <code>doc.ents</code>. Add warnings if <code>.similarity</code> method is called with empty vectors or without word vectors. Improve rule-based <code>Matcher</code> and add <code>return_matches</code> keyword argument to <code>Matcher.pipe</code> to yield <code>(doc, matches)</code> tuples instead of only <code>Doc</code> objects, and <code>as_tuples</code> to add context to the <code>Doc</code> objects. Make stop words via <code>Token.is_stop</code> and <code>Lexeme.is_stop</code> case-insensitive. Accept <code>"TEXT"</code> as an alternative to <code>"ORTH"</code> in <code>Matcher</code> patterns. Use <code>black</code> for auto-formatting <code>.py</code> source and optimse codebase using <code>flake8</code>. You can now run <code>flake8 spacy</code> and it should return no errors or warnings. See <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> for details. 🔴 Bug fixes Fix issue #795: Fix behaviour of <code>Token.conjuncts.</code> Fix issue #1487: Add <code>Doc.retokenize()</code> context manager. Fix issue #1537: Make <code>Span.as_doc</code> return a copy, not a view. Fix issue #1574: Make sure stop words are available in medium and large English models. Fix issue #1585: Prevent parser from predicting unseen classes. Fix issue #1642: Replace <code>regex</code> with <code>re</code> and speed up tokenization. Fix issue #1665: Correct typos in symbol <code>Animacy_inan</code> and add <code>Animacy_nhum</code>. Fix issue #1748, #1798, #2756, #2934: Add simpler GPU-friendly option to <code>TextCategorizer</code>. Fix issue #1773: Prevent tokenizer exceptions from setting <code>POS</code> but not <code>TAG</code>. Fix issue #1782, #2343: Fix training on GPU. Fix issue #1816: Allow custom <code>Language</code> subclasses via entry points. Fix issue #1865: Correct licensing of <code>it_core_news_sm</code> model. Fix issue #1889: Make stop words case-insensitive. Fix issue #1903: Add <code>relcl</code> dependency label to symbols. Fix issue #1963: Resize <code>Doc.tensor</code> when merging spans. Fix issue #1971: Update <code>Matcher</code> engine to support regex, extension attributes and rich comparison. Fix issue #2014: Make <code>Token.pos_</code> writeable. Fix issue #2091: Fix <code>displacy</code> support for RTL languages. Fix issue #2203, #3268: Prevent bad interaction of lemmatizer and tokenizer exceptions. Fix issue #2329: Correct <code>TextCategorizer</code> and <code>GoldParse</code> API docs. Fix issue #2369: Respect pre-defined warning filters. Fix issue #2390: Support setting lexical attributes during retokenization. Fix issue #2396: Fix <code>Doc.get_lca_matrix</code>. Fix issue #2464, #3009: Fix behaviour of <code>Matcher</code>'s <code>?</code> quantifier. Fix issue #2482: Fix serialization when parser model is empty. Fix issue #2512, #2153: Fix issue with deserialization into non-empty vocab. Fix issue #2603: Improve handling of missing NER tags. Fix issue #2644: Add table explaining training metrics to docs. Fix issue #2648: Fix <code>KeyError</code> in <code>Vectors.most_similar</code>. Fix issue #2671, #2675: Fix incorrect match ID on some patterns. Fix issue #2693: Only use <code>'sentencizer'</code> as built-in sentence boundary component name. Fix issue #2728: Fix HTML escaping in <code>displacy</code> NER visualization and correct API docs. Fix issue #2740: Add ability to pass additional arguments to pipeline components. Fix issue #2754, #3028: Make <code>NORM</code> a <code>Token</code> attribute instead of a <code>Lexeme</code> attribute to allow setting context-specific norms in tokenizer exceptions. Fix issue #2769: Fix issue that'd cause segmentation fault when calling <code>EntityRecognizer.add_label</code>. Fix issue #2772: Fix bug in sentence starts for non-projective parses. Fix issue #2779: Fix handling of pre-set entities. Fix issue #2782: Make <code>like_num</code> work with prefixed numbers. Fix issue #2833: Raise better error if <code>Token</code> or <code>Span</code> are pickled. Fix issue #2838: Add <code>Retokenizer.split</code> method to split one token into several. Fix issue #2869: Make <code>doc[0].is_sent_start == True</code>. Fix issue #2870: Make it illegal for the entity recognizer to predict whitespace tokens as <code>B</code>, <code>L</code> or <code>U</code>. Fix issue #2871: Fix vectors for reserved words. Fix issue #2901: Fix issue with first call of <code>nlp</code> in Japanese (MeCab). Fix issue #2924: Make IDs of displaCy arcs more unique to avoid clashes. Fix issue #3012: Fix clobber of <code>Doc.is_tagged</code> in <code>Doc.from_array</code>. Fix issue #3027: Allow <code>Span</code> to take unicode value for <code>label</code> argument. Fix issue #3036: Support mutable default arguments in extension attributes. Fix issue #3048: Raise better errors for uninitialized pipeline components. Fix issue #3064: Allow single string attributes in <code>Doc.to_array</code>. Fix issue #3093, #3067: Set <code>vectors.name</code> correctly when exporting model via CLI. Fix issue #3112: Make sure entity types are added correctly on GPU. Fix issue #3191: Fix pickling of <code>Japanese</code>. Fix issue #3122: Correct docs of <code>Token.subtree</code> and <code>Span.subtree</code>. Fix issue #3128: Improve error handling in converters. Fix issue #3248: Fix <code>PhraseMatcher</code> pickling and make <code>__len__</code> consist
People tend to like stimuli—ranging from human faces to text—that are prototypical, and thus easily processed. However, recent research has suggested that less typical stimuli may be preferred in creative contexts, such as fine art or music lyrics. In an archival sample of movie scripts, we tested whether genre-typicality predicted film ratings as a function of rater role (novice audience member or expert film critic). Genre-typicality was operationalized as the profile correlations between linguistic arcs (across five segments, or acts) for each script and within-genre averages. We predicted (1) that critics would prefer more disfluent (genre-atypical) films and general audiences would prefer fluent (genre-typical) films, and (2) that these differences would be most pronounced for genres expected to be more entertaining (e.g., action/adventure) than challenging (e.g., tragedy). Partly consistent with our hypotheses, the results showed that critics gave higher ratings to action/adventure films with less typical positive emotion arcs. However, regardless of audience-member or professional-critic status, higher ratings were attributed to films that were more genre-atypical (or disfluent), in terms of analytic thinking, narrative action, and emotional tone, across all genres except family/kids films. Such findings support the growing literature on the appeal of disfluency in the arts and have relevance for researchers in psychology and computer science who are interested in computational linguistic approaches to attitudes, film, and literature.
The article deals with the actual problem of the modern society – the formation of the linguistic aesthetic culture of the future teacher of Ukrainian language and literature during the acquisition of professional education in the process of studying the subjects of the linguistic cycle. A cultural-language excursion was made on the program material of the course «Modern Ukrainian Literary Language». We focus on the provision of linguistic aesthetic culture has been explored by observing linguistic norms – orthographic, punctuation, orthoepic, accentual, lexical and phraseological, grammatical (morphologic and syntactic), stylistic. Attention is paid to the most current violations of linguistic norms and variants of their correction, in particular: lexical ones, which consist of the use of stylistically unmotivated linguistic variants concerning tautology, pleonasm, verbosity, words used in an intrinsic sense, interference phenomena and words that are not match the depicted era, etc.; phraseological, concerning rules of use of persistent phrases without distortion of their content and grammatical structure for influence on the interlocutor; morphological concerning interlingua interference, non-normative formations that do not correspond to the grammatical categories of genus, number, case, degree, person, time, method, condition, tense. Disorders of noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, adverb and verbal disorders that have the ability to distort the aesthetic culture of Ukrainian verbal and written speech are highlighted and the ways of overcoming them are indicated. Violations of syntactic norms in phrases that are expressed by incorrect forms of matching, non-normative without the preposition control, incorrect control in an atypical combination of a noun and a numeral, non-normative prepositional control when choosing a preposition, the use of one preposition in the meaning of another. The focus is on syntactical errors in simple sentences with incorrect coordination of subject and predicate, violation of the homogeneity of the series, incorrect construction of sentences with participle and adverbial turns; in complex sentences that indicate the detachment of a subordinate signifier from an explanatory word and unmotivated parceling as unjustified sentence breaks. Methods of teaching for the prevention of mistakes are offered, the system of exercises for improvement of linguistic norms with the purpose of formation of linguistic aesthetic culture of the future teacher-philologist is grounded.
The paper deals with the effects of prescriptivism on the Lithuanian language. The research includes one domain of language use – radio and television, and one aspect of language – lexicon, in the period between 1960 and 2010. The investigation is corpus-based and focuses on the use of words that are classified as “incorrect” by the Lithuanian norm-setters. The study is important both as a discussion of the impact of prescriptivism on language change in general, as well as of the indirect influence of media on language, since media can affect the symbolic evaluation of specific language forms.The paper consists of five chapters. The first chapter “Review of the research” discusses the theoretical assumptions and concepts needed for further analysis: it gives an overview of studies on the effects of prescriptivism conducted in Lithuania and elsewhere, presents the concepts of second-level indexicality and style, and outlines the key characteristics of media change in Lithuania that are relevant to the study. Studies on the success of prescriptivism do not give a definite answer as to whether prescriptivism works. Institutionalisation and a high degree of stigmatisation of the corrected language forms can be listed among the factors that increase its success; prescriptivism is likely to be less successful when the “forbidden” language forms are too convenient to be given up, or when prescriptivist rules are too complicated for lay language users and the rules contradict each other. In the case of media, the effect of prescriptivism is said to be weakened by media commercialisation.When applied to the analysis of non-standard words, first-order indexicality refers to situations when the non-standard forms are used as value-free instances of ordinary speech, in already established meanings; in these cases, the speakers are not aware that they are using “incorrect” forms. Second-order indexicality refers to cases when non-standard words are used for additional function, e.g., to express a speaker’s particular identity or to construct a certain (informal, friendly) speech style. The concept of style, referring to the social differences between individual speakers, is used to analyse the use of words in concrete situations. The paper gives an overview of three sociolinguistic concepts of style that are relevant in this study: style as a degree of formality (e.g., when the speaker accommodates to the formal context of the media and uses less non-standard words); as audience and referee design (e.g., use of non-standard words in programmes for young audiences); and as a speaker design (e.g., play with language by the programme host in order to construct a fun persona).In the study of non-standard lexis, it is important to account for certain features of Lithuanian media development, such as the Soviet period, which was characterised by the use of newspeak, and the commercialisation of the media in the contemporary period. Accordingly, the paper analyses the uses of incorrect words as a part of newspeak and their use for the entertainment-related purposes such as language plays in present times. The paper also addresses the transitory period of radio and TV development, which has features from both the previous and the later periods, as well as some unique characteristics of language use.The second chapter “Radio and TV speech in the prescriptive discourse” presents an analysis of the metalinguistic discourse on media speech produced by Lithuanian prescriptivists from the pre-war period up to now. The analysis shows how this discourse preserved the same dominant idea about media’s role in language standardisation. On the one hand, during this whole time, radio and television were approached as responsible for teaching listeners and viewers the “correct language”; on the other hand, simultaneously, the language of radio and television was perceived as failing to conform to the prescriptive norms set by the norm-setters. The huge societal shifts that happened during this time did not make a major influence on this discourse. It remained very stable during different periods of time. The social, cultural and political changes in society and the media were taken into account only by adjusting the argumentation – by presenting patriotic, moral, ideological or legal motives that were meant to justify the language prescriptions.The third chapter “Research methods and data” presents the Corpus of Radio and TV speech, the concept of non-standard words, and the sources of prescriptivist corrections used in the analysis. The corpus of radio and TV speech includes data from 1960 to 2011 and is constructed in a balanced way to represent the periods of Lithuanian radio and TV development (Soviet, transitory, contemporary), as well as programme genres (talk programmes, information programmes, journals/features/documentaries). The speakers are coded into six types: news reader/voice-over, talk show host, expert, celebrity, hero and vox populi. For the analysis, the non-standard words that are classified as “incorrect” in the normative tradition of the Lithuanian language were coded. These include old (mainly, Slavic) and new (mainly, English) loans, the so-called hybrid words (that have a borrowed part), semantic loans, translations, as well as some lexicalised uses of words and some lexicalised syntactic constructions. Two types of words are analysed – individual lexical words and functional words. The latter include various fillers and discourse markers, as well as pronoun constructions with tai (e.g. kažkas tai ‘some(body)’). Non-standard words were identified from older and present style guides, including the database of language corrections created by the State Commission of the Lithuanian Language.The fourth chapter “Change in the number of non-standard words: a quantitative analysis” investigates development of the use of non-standard words on radio and TV, as well as the frequency of usage of the non-standard lexical forms. According to the corpus data, the average frequency of non-standard words by one speaker is 17 per thousand words, which makes up about 2–3 “incorrect” words per minute. Non-standard discourse markers and fillers (9.8/1000 words) are used most frequently, whereas individual lexical words (5.6/1000 words) are much less frequent, and pronoun constructions with tai (1.6/1000 words) are rarer still. Closer analysis revealed that the only statistically significant change between the analysed periods (Soviet, transitory and contemporary) was a decrease of the frequency of non-standard lexical words in the contemporary period compared to the previous ones. The frequency of discourse markers/fillers and pronoun constructions with tai did not change. Regarding the speaker types, the uses of non-standard words decreased in those groups that are within easier reach of prescriptivism – news readers/voice-overs and talk show hosts. Also, to a lesser extent, in the group of experts. Those groups of speakers that are less likely to be subjected to language correction practices (ordinary people) did not seem to change their behaviour: the number of non-standard words in their speech did not decrease, on the contrary, a slight increase has been noticed. These findings confirm the effects of institutionalised prescriptivism. Regarding genres, non-standard words are least frequent in information programmes, which are mostly based on the reading of written texts. Lists of the most frequent non-standard words during the three periods overlap to a great extent, which means that despite prescriptivist practices, the most frequent non-standard words do not disappear from the air.The fifth chapter “Change in the functions of non-standard words: a qualitative analysis” investigates specific communicative situations of the usage of non-standard words and takes into account the media-related and societal contexts, as well as the stylistic and social functions of the corrected lexis. A common trait of the use of non-standard words during all periods, interpreted as the first level of indexicality, is the use of common, everyday vocabulary, most likely without being aware of the “incorrect” status of the chosen forms. Also, non-standard words are used as a part of professional language, in this case the speaker might be aware that he or she is using an ‘incorrect’ word, but chooses to use it nevertheless for convenience or because of its indexical value for professional identity. During all the periods, non-standard words are also used as indices of informal and authentic communication between close acquaintances; this function is performed by all types of the studied non-standard words, particularly old borrowings and frequent fillers.The study identified a few style- and social meaning-related uses of non-standard lexis that explain the choice of the corrected forms instead of the required equivalents. In the Soviet period, some non-standard words were used as a part of Soviet newspeak; old borrowings were used in references to the ideological enemies of Soviet rule, mainly the ones from pre-war Lithuania. In certain cases, these words were employed due to their stylistic value in an intimate and authentic discourse. The late Soviet period saw the first use of non-standard words as markers of informal communication. The use of non-standard words in the transitory period shows some of the functions from the Soviet period, e.g., they are used as an element of newspeak, albeit without the Soviet ideological value, or as expressions of informality. A particular feature of this period is the use of non-standard words as an index of live and authentic speech, which was not allowed during Soviet times, as a means of authentic communication, and the criticism and violation of Soviet taboos. The contemporary period is marked by a huge variety of functions of non-standard words. It brings in a number of new style-related functions of non
We present a Bayesian nonlinear mixed-effects location scale model (NL-MELSM). The NL-MELSM allows for fitting nonlinear functions to the location, or individual means, and the scale, or within-person variance. Specifically, in the context of learning, this model allows the within-person variance to follow a nonlinear trajectory, where it can be determined whether variability reduces during learning. It incorporates a sub-model that can predict nonlinear parameters for both the location and scale. This specification estimates random effects for all nonlinear location and scale parameters that are drawn from a common multivariate distribution. This allows estimation of covariances among the random effects, within and across the location and the scale. These covariances offer new insights into the interplay between individual mean structures and intra-individual variability in nonlinear parameters. We take a fully Bayesian approach, not only for ease of estimation but also for inference because it provides the necessary and consistent information for use in psychological applications, such as model selection and hypothesis testing. To illustrate the model, we use data from 333 individuals, consisting of three age groups, who participated in five learning trials that assessed verbal memory. In an exploratory context, we demonstrate that fitting a nonlinear function to the within-person variance, and allowing for individual variation therein, improves predictive accuracy compared to customary modeling techniques (e.g., assuming constant variance). We conclude by discussing the usefulness, limitations, and future directions of the NL-MELSM.
Evidence accumulation models (EAMs) have become the dominant models of rapid decision-making. Several variants of these models have been proposed, ranging from the simple linear ballistic accumulator (LBA) to the more complex leaky-competing accumulator (LCA), and further extensions that include time-varying rates of evidence accumulation or decision thresholds. Although applications of the simpler variants have been widespread, applications of the more complex models have been fewer, largely due to their intractable likelihood function and the computational cost of mass simulation. Here, I present a framework for efficiently fitting complex EAMs, which uses a new, efficient method of simulating these models. I find that the majority of simulation time is taken up by random number generation (RNG) from the normal distribution, needed for the stochastic noise of the differential equation. To reduce this inefficiency, I propose using the well-known concept within computer science of “look-up tables” (LUTs) as an approximation to the inverse cumulative density function (iCDF) method of RNG, which I call “LUT-iCDF”. I show that when using an appropriately sized LUT, simulations using LUT-iCDF closely match those from the standard RNG method in R. My framework, which I provide a detailed tutorial on how to implement, includes C code for 12 different variants of EAMs using the LUT-iCDF method, and should make the implementation of complex EAMs easier and faster.
Existing event detection algorithms for eye-movement data almost exclusively rely on thresholding one or more hand-crafted signal features, each computed from the stream of raw gaze data. Moreover, this thresholding is largely left for the end user. Here we present and develop gazeNet, a new framework for creating event detectors that do not require hand-crafted signal features or signal thresholding. It employs an end-to-end deep learning approach, which takes raw eye-tracking data as input and classifies it into fixations, saccades and post-saccadic oscillations. Our method thereby challenges an established tacit assumption that hand-crafted features are necessary in the design of event detection algorithms. The downside of the deep learning approach is that a large amount of training data is required. We therefore first develop a method to augment hand-coded data, so that we can strongly enlarge the data set used for training, minimizing the time spent on manual coding. Using this extended hand-coded data, we train a neural network that produces eye-movement event classification from raw eye-movement data without requiring any predefined feature extraction or post-processing steps. The resulting classification performance is at the level of expert human coders. Moreover, an evaluation of gazeNet on two other datasets showed that gazeNet generalized to data from different eye trackers and consistently outperformed several other event detection algorithms that we tested.
Severe developmental deficits in face recognition ability (developmental prosopagnosia, or DP) have been vigorously studied over the past decade, yet many questions remain unanswered about their origins, nature, and social consequences. A rate-limiting factor in answering such questions is the challenge of recruiting rare DP participants. Although self-reported experiences have long played a role in efforts to identify DPs, much remains unknown about how such self-reports can or should contribute to screening or diagnosis. Here, in a large, population-based web sample, we investigated the effectiveness of self-report, used on its own, as a screen to identify individuals who will ultimately fail, at a conventional cutoff, the two types of objective tests that are most commonly used to confirm DP diagnoses: the Cambridge Face Memory Test (CFMT) and the famous faces memory test (FFMT). We used a highly reliable questionnaire (alpha = .91), the Cambridge Face Memory Questionnaire (CFMQ), and revealed strong validity via high correlations of .44 with the CFMT and .52 with the FFMT. However, cutoff analyses revealed that no CFMQ score yielded a clinical-grade combination of sensitivity and positive predictive value in enough individuals to support using it alone as a DP diagnostic or screening tool. This result was replicated in an analysis of data from the widely used PI20 questionnaire, a 20-question self-assessment of facial recognition similar in form to the CFMQ. We therefore recommend that screens for DP should, wherever possible, include objective as well as subjective assessment tools.
Recent research within the computational social sciences has shown that when computational models of lexical semantics are trained on standard natural-language corpora, they embody many of the implicit biases that are seen in human behavior (Caliskan, Bryson, & Narayanan, 2017). In the present study, we aimed to build on this work and demonstrate that there is a large and systematic bias in the use of personal names in the natural-language environment, such that male names are much more prevalent than female names. This bias holds over an analysis of billions of words of text, subcategorized into different genres within fiction novels, nonfiction books, and subtitles from television and film. Additionally, we showed that this bias holds across time, with more recent work displaying the same patterns as work published tens or hundreds of years previously. Finally, we showed that the main cause of the bias comes from male authors perpetuating the bias toward male names, with female authors showing a much smaller bias. This work demonstrates the potential of big-data analyses to shed light on large-scale trends in human behavior and to elucidate their causes.
It is widely accepted that language requires context in order to function as communication between speakers and listeners. As listeners, we make use of background knowledge — about the speaker, about entities and concepts, about previous utterances — in order to infer the speaker’s intended meaning. But even if there is consensus that these sources of information are a necessary component of linguistic communication, it is another matter entirely to provide a thorough, quantitative accounting for context’s interaction with language. When does context matter? What kinds of context matter in which kinds of domains? The empirical investigation of these questions is inhibited by a number of factors: the challenge of quantifying language, the boundless combinations of domains and types of context to be measured, and the challenge of selecting and applying a given construct to natural language data. In response to these factors, we introduce and demonstrate a methodological framework for testing the importance of contextual information in inferring speaker intentions from text. We apply Long Short-term Memory (LSTM) networks, a standard for representing language in its natural, sequential state, and conduct a set of experiments for predicting the persuasive intentions of speakers in political debates using different combinations of text and background information about the speaker. We show, in our modeling and discussion, that the proposed framework is suitable for empirically evaluating the manner and magnitude of context’s relevance for any number of domains and constructs.
This article is devoted to the identification of the essence, content and specific features to develop the military students’ lexical culture from the universities of EMERCOM of Russia. It is emphasized that the lexical culture of the specialists of EMERCOM of Russia is based on the observance of lexical norms and the appropriateness of using lexical means.
Reviewed by: Textplicating Iconophones: Articulatory Iconic Action in "Ulysses," by Nurit Levy Congrong Dai (bio) TEXTPLICATING ICONOPHONES: ARTICULATORY ICONIC ACTION IN "ULYSSES," by Nurit Levy. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishers, 2016. xviii + 331 pp. $158.00 cloth, ebook. The significance of Joyce's language experiments and the influence that this experimentation has had on the meaning of his work is already widely recognized. In Nurit Levy's Textplicating Iconophones: Articulatory Iconic Action in "Ulysses," however, the author uses a new approach to reading Ulysses in an attempt to illustrate the ways that the semantic message is transmitted by articulatory and acoustic representations. Levy calls this process "articulatory iconic action" and [End Page 189] discusses the question raised in the text's opening sentence—"Is or is not language iconic acoustically?" (3)—while Ulysses is mainly used as a case study to demonstrate how the linguistic idea is applied (306). Therefore, the author's greatest concern is to show how "articulatory actions and their acoustic phenomena support messages without recourse to text-external information, that is, from the distribution of phonemes alone" (67). Levy studies the phonemes and phonotactics in Ulysses and attempts to define the relationship between the articulatory elements and the semantic aspects there. This intention is captured by the word "iconophones" used in the title of her book. She avoids using language that might show a direct relation between iconic meaning and articulated sounds, even though she does think that the acoustic effect of words can be decisive and can illuminate the semantic message held therein. Such precise language, specialist terminology, and the necessary care that Levy adopts can make her writing difficult for the reader. The "meaning" Levy gives to the phonemes "ŋ," "d," "ts," and "s" depends mostly on their phonological distinctions, such as the aperture and continuity in their articulation. Therefore, she describes "meaning" as neither informational nor conceptual but instead as "a linguistic norm abstracted from linguistic practice" (xv). For example, meanings might include prolongation, alienability, distance, closeness, transition, delimitation, boundaries, continuity, integration, or control. This raises a question: if this kind of "universal" meaning is supposed to coincide with every phoneme, since the content is decided through articulatory characters rather than the context, would the semantic message that Levy finds in Ulysses by studying the arrangement of these phonemes be too limited and too farfetched for a special text such as Ulysses? It is a question that has been raised often regarding the work of the Columbia School of Linguistics, which is the basis of Levy's linguistic perspective. The Columbia School is still considered, in the words of Alan Huffman, "the most radical on today's linguistic scene."1 In its difference from the popular linguistics influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure, the Columbia School finds that "both substance and structure have their place in linguistics, in both phonology and grammar."2 Traditionally linguistic meaning is believed to be arbitrary, and grammar is considered to correspond to what Aristotelian scholars call logical and regular patterns of thought. Ulysses is especially comparable to the Columbia School of Linguistics methodology, as it exploits the linguistic capacity to express subtleties of sense and feeling. Joyce's writing contains many neologisms and illogical sentences that deviate from the traditional grammar in order to imitate the subtlety of senses and feelings. According to Levy, the best way to explore the articulatory iconic contribution to the semantic content occurs when the [End Page 190] author leaves the lexical and syntactic tradition to find new ways to imitate nonlinguistic sounds. The neologisms imitating the mewing of the cat in the third episode in Ulysses are one of her examples (69). Levy believes that Joyce is clearly aware of the articulatory iconicity he employs here and throughout Ulysses. In other examples, the two Ulysses sentences Levy studies are taken from the third and thirteenth episodes respectively.3 Although the episodes are separated by some distance, Levy believes that the resemblance in the sounds and graphemes between the "ts" in "[t]hat is why mystic monks" and in "[t]hat's how that wise man what's his name with the burning glass" (U 3.38, 13.1138-39) is "perhaps not by chance...
Terminological competence is an integral component of speech culture of any professional. It presupposes the corresponding terminology basis and skills of using it efficiently. The issue of researching and learning terminological lexis, and thus, the issue of building up terminological competence of future experts in any field have frequently drawn scholars’ attention. At the same time, despite numerous works in the above domain, there are certain gaps in studying the problem considered, which is obvious, taking into account the insufficient quality of the system of activities directed at forming the culture of professional communication, whose part and parcel is terminological competence of future professionals in any field, including future managers. The aim of this work is to analyze opportunities of forming terminological competence while teaching graduate students (majoring in management) the Ukrainian language. To realize the above mentioned aim, it is necessary to reveal the essence and the structure of the concept «terminological competence», as well as to explicate main approaches, methods and steps of forming it. The author of the article analytically sums up material from scientific works of the recent years and offers a vision of terminological competence as a conscious motivated usage of terms in their specific meanings that are fixed in the corresponding terminological dictionaries, applying terms with an emphasis on understanding historical processes in lexis and semantics in general and the development systems of terms, in particular, making terms function from the point of view of lexico-semantic relationships in this field, taking into consideration word valence in terms of patterns «a term – a term», «a term – a common word»; consciously following grammar norms of modern standard Ukrainian while using terminological lexical units; relevantly operating terminological lexical units as scientific style entities in the process of creating scientific texts. The author concludes that forming a high level terminological competence can be ensured only by means of developing a rational system of teaching methods, aimed at step-by-step consistent mastering major terminology that will enable a multi-facet comprehension of terminological vocabularies and their constant high-quality enrichment, enhancing the process of building up skills of working with terminological lexis and of using terms in major-oriented texts in the appropriate way.
Instructors at most career levels can agree there is irony in our expectations of students’ writing abilities. While we want our students to write well, and often bemoan their abilities, relatively few of us actually teach writing skills (Guilford 20012001, Robertson 20042004, Reynolds and Thompson 20112011). The real paradox, according to Reynolds and Thompson, is that while writing and associated communication skills are fundamental to most careers in ecology, “the teaching of writing is not central to science education” (Reynolds and Thompson 20112011). Few undergraduate biology courses “make explicit what most scientists agree […] that comprehension of primary scientific papers and communication of scientific concepts are two of the most important skills” students must learn (Brownell et al. 20132013). It would be easy to blame the lack of writing instruction in science courses on associated instructional challenges, but there are likely more straightforward reasons why ecologists do not emphasize writing skill development in their courses: Bean (20112011), an academic, consultant, and writing program administrator, adds to the list: In 2011, Bean published Engaging Ideas: The Professor's Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom. In it, he productively counters these reasons for reluctance on the part of academic educators. The rest of this article will focus on some of the highlights from Engaging Ideas and associated scholarship that may be most immediately valuable to university science instructors. A rarity in a market flooded with books advising on how to become a better writer, Engaging Ideas emphasizes how to become a better writing instructor. In the early chapters, Bean outlines the research and theory underpinning current best practices in writing pedagogy and the scholarship of rhetoric and composition. The rest of Engaging Ideas is an immensely accessible, cross-curricular, writing instruction how-to book. It is also one specifically calibrated for the busy academic instructor. Consistent with current research on science writing instruction (and writing instruction more generally), Bean takes a “writing across the curriculum” approach which (1) discredits many of the myths obstructing science-related writing instruction efforts and (2) provides accessible and actionable recommendations for how we can enhance science learning through writing skill development in our own classrooms. Bean has taught and studied cross-disciplinary writing since 1976, and his tone is collegial and reasonable. He acknowledges, and is intimately familiar with, the challenges facing instructors throughout academia. His book is an explicit invitation to collaborate on the important work of developing students who can think and write critically. Bean's invitation is well-founded and timely. Results of a recent, informal, non-representative poll of readers of a well-regarded ecology blog bear this out (Merkle 20182018). Of 97 respondents, 77% (75/97) feel they should teach writing more than they do. Perhaps surprisingly, small class sizes, advanced courses, and TA availability were not the primary reasons people do not teach writing. However, other time-based reasons were as follows: Lack of time for grading time-intensive assignments (70%; 42/60) was the dominant reason, along with lack of time to support students (60%; 36/60). Lack of writing instruction (30%; 18/60) followed. The literature documents additional reasons. During a review of faculty perspectives on the importance of academic writing and instructional responsibility, Wei Zhu found, “much of what students need to write, particularly in upper division undergraduate and graduate level courses, is specifically tied to their disciplines” (2004). However, many professors perceive writing instruction responsibility as secondary to content knowledge (2004). Worse, Jackson et al. found that, among the faculty they surveyed, no academic science faculty felt they bore “any of the responsibility for developing discourse competence in students” (Jackson et al. 20062006). Essentially, Bean argues, we often pose our students reading and writing problems in a dialect they have not yet mastered (Bean 20112011), without feeling responsibility for helping them learn the dialect. Jackson et al. further highlight the issue of mismatched reading versus expected writing output. The undergraduate science courses Jackson et al. studied emphasized textbook readings, despite the primary written discourse of science taking place in academic peer-reviewed articles and the majority of assignments being article-esque laboratory reports (2006). This is a surmountable issue. Julie A. Reynolds and her colleagues hypothesize that the reluctance of STEM faculty “to incorporate writing in their courses derives largely from a lack of awareness of the research on the effectiveness of [writing teaching methods], since most published findings are in journals not regularly read by STEM faculty and the majority of studies use methods unfamiliar to most scientists” (Reynolds et al. 20122012). We can do something about this, by reading up on this literature. We can also reach across campus to our colleagues in English and Rhetoric and Composition Departments as well as the experts running our campus writing centers. Stepping out of our disciplinary box in this way can be mutually productive (e.g., Heard 20162016). Further, Melissa Kosinski-Collins and Susannah Gordon-Messer provide a case study for how to overcome misconceptions based on lack of familiarity with best practices in writing instruction. Cosinski-Collins and Gordon-Messer incorporated writing assignments of varying lengths throughout multi-session biology laboratories. They observed considerable improvement in both students’ comprehension of processes and their ability to articulate experiment design, execution, and results (20102010). Throughout Engaging Ideas, Bean uses examples akin to Cosinski-Collins and Gordon-Messer's efforts. And these three authors are not alone in asserting that “integrating writing and critical thinking components into a course can increase the amount of subject matter students actually learn.” However, Bean's particular contribution is in articulating both how these components contribute to subject matter mastery and how to get students to that point. For example, he discourages using quizzes and lecturing about assigned readings in favor of approaches such as (1) confirming that some texts are challenging, (2) assigning material not covered in class, (3) reducing the number of readings, and (4) developing and assigning reading guides. Commonly in some disciplines, reading guides are question sets that “define key terms with special disciplinary meanings, fill in needed cultural knowledge, explain the rhetorical context of the reading, illuminate the rhetorical purpose of genre conventions, and ask critical questions for students to consider as they progress through the text” (Bean 20112011). Furthermore, Bean admonishes us not to confuse the draft-like nature of examination essays with the potential polish of revised writing. In particular, excessive “worrying about spelling, grammar, and structure when you are trying to discover and clarify ideas can shut down any writer's creative energy.” To frame this point, Bean paraphrases P. Hartwell's insightful and useful grammar categories, which organize writing and speaking into the following: (1) native grammar learned in childhood, (2) academic and scientific study of grammar, (3) Standard Written English (which Bean points out is a prestige dialect), (4) parts-of-speech grammar, and (5) stylistic grammar (e.g., Strunk and White's Elements of Style). Importantly, Bean explains the documented detrimental effects of error-seeking and fixating on sentence-level errors. He provides insight into why we should not prioritize grammar. He couples this advice with a series of recommendations for how to shift grading, correction, and students’ own goals toward clarity, organization, and self-correction instead of “handbook grammar” perfection (Bean 20112011). Bean also frames the grammar issue in historical and socio-political lights, and gives particular emphasis to an argument shared by other writing instruction scholars (Bean 20112011). That is, ecology instructors (and indeed all writing-related instructors) should aim for writing skills that enable students to be actively intellectual citizens, rather than enshrining critical writing and thinking exclusively within the purview of academia (Harris 20122012). Bean asserts that it is how our language is structured, and a lack of complex reading experience, which impedes the production of writing that “is both a process of doing critical thinking and a product that communicates the results of critical thinking.” Make no mistake; Bean does not recommend teaching science writing as creative writing (although there are fine examples of how this synthesis can be powerful and productive, e.g., Skillen and Bowne 20142014). However, Bean is explicit: We can easily and inadvertently squelch students’ enthusiasm for thinking and writing about ecology by forcing them to adhere to rules and processes that we ourselves do not even follow (Bean 20112011). Bean further cautions us against assuming our simply need to be drilled on grammar, in order to execute an articulate and insightful laboratory report or research paper. He cites one study of American English speakers who, when asked to analyze new information by writing about it, “experienced partial or total linguistic collapse…Grammatical, lexical, and syntactic skills they seemed to have mastered disintegrated. Their papers were nearly incomprehensible” (Bean 20112011). “It may well be,” Bean hypothesizes, “that competence in editing and correctness is a late-developing skill that blossoms only after students begin taking pride in their writing and seeing themselves as having ideas important enough to communicate” (Bean 20112011). Other research suggests such skill development is also contingent upon students fully understanding the importance of writing for their own professional work outside of college (Guilford 20012001). Substantiating this premise, Bean cites cognitive research which indicates “that the frontal lobes of the brain, which seldom reach full maturity until age twenty-three to thirty, are needed for complex writing tasks that require writers first to wrestle with advanced, domain-specific knowledge and then to read their emerging texts from the audience's perspective” (Bean 20112011). In essence, we are asking students to do things their brains are not yet mature enough to do on their own. Throughout Engaging Ideas, Bean demonstrates both the pitfalls of leaving students to their own devices and the feasibility of us helping them meet our expectations. Shifting the focus from grammatical error to “writing as thinking” frees us and our students to focus on articulating the big ecological ideas we want them to appreciate, synthesize, and retain. Even so, Bean's lasting contribution to academic ecology instructors will not just be to emphasize students’ use of content versus merely acquiring content and using commas correctly. Engaging Ideas’ most essential contribution regards how students actually learn new information. He writes: “As cognitive research has shown […], to assimilate a new concept, learners must link it back to a structure of known material, determining how a new concept is both similar to and different from what the learner already knows. The more that unfamiliar material can be linked to the familiar ground of personal experience and already existing knowledge, the easier it is to learn” (Bean 20112011). So, our students will more readily connect to complex theories of speciation and conspecific competition if they are invited, through writing assignments, to make connections between these processes and the biological knowledge they already possess. Or better yet, students may learn to write and think more compellingly through making analogies between their own personal experiences and these foundational ecological principles. Bean suggests several ways to facilitate these past experience–new knowledge connections: (1) Students are assigned to explain the concept in writing to someone who has never heard of it (perhaps a relative or friend); (2) students are provided data and methods from a research article and directed to write the introduction and conclusion, according to disciplinary norms; (3) students are provided templates with fill-in-the-blank spaces designed to teach specific, formal writing structures expected in the discipline; (4) students are prompted to write short, summary-response essays about articles or course lectures. If organized in a sequential fashion, these assignments can also build students’ confidence in their capacity to write longer texts that meet disciplinary expectations (Bean 20112011). Herein lies Bean's book's overall utility; in it, he details how we can jumpstart developmental processes that bring students to this level of sophisticated writing. In short, Bean advocates two tools: (1) Use “scaffolding exercises that encourage students to take notes, generate ideas during prewriting, make an outline, or learn the structural features of different genres” and (2) link all new learning “to preexisting neural networks already in the learner's brain.” Do so by using “informal writing assignments aimed at helping students probe memory, connect new concepts to old networks, dismantle blocking assumptions, and understand the significance of the new concept” (Bean 20112011). Bean challenges us to pose writing problems that (1) compel students to develop research-substantiated argumentative positions and (2) require revision that results in refined expression and critical thinking. He provides a stand-out case study that could certainly be replicated in ecology classes: A business professor assigns numerous one- to two-page essays arguing for or against increasingly complex theses. These essays require research, data analysis, and reasonable argument development; revisions for higher grades are encouraged. Providing revision opportunities, Bean maintains, is of utmost necessity. He encourages requiring multiple drafts of even seemingly straightforward writing tasks (Bean 20112011). While this suggestion might seem obvious, subjects of a study exploring science faculty perceptions of their role in writing instruction reported providing few or zero revision opportunities (Zhu 20042004). However, research Bean cites indicates revision is central to students mastering discipline-specific writing (and writing more generally). Throughout Engaging Ideas, Bean provides guidance, in some cases step-by-step, for the following: (1) shifting the focus from grammar to critical thinking through writing, (2) designing writing assignments that are directly relevant to science course topics, (3) scaffolding writing assignments and revision to support student skill development, and (4) re-thinking our expectations to encompass the significant responsibility of instructors to model and mentor students toward enhanced writing skills. With Bean's book in hand, we no longer have an excuse to mutter into our cups about our students’ lack of skills. Bean and the bulk of the writing instruction literature make it clear—we can tap into a body of scholarship that will help us help our students meet mutual expectations. Engaging Ideas is an invaluable guide to doing so. Meghan Duffy, Jeremy Fox, and Kelly Kinney provided valuable comments on prior versions of this manuscript.
The article is devoted to the question of selecting a special (terminological) vocabulary for a comprehensive explanatory dictionary and its lexicographic normalization (standardization). Of particular relevance, this problem occurs today, when there is an active replenishment of the terminology in various fields of science, technology, production, etc. The language policy regarding the dynamic nature of the norms of the literary language consists in its codification – the establishment of rules of use in dictionaries and grammar. The main principle of graphic design of words in the dictionary of an interpretative type is the strict observance of the rules of the spelling. Independent standardization (bringing terminology to a single system) from the necessity of the first priority solving a number of problems caused by violations of the lexical general literary norm. The most typical spelling mistakes that occur in dictionaries are outlined, and the ways of overcoming them are proposed. The combination of objective updating of the lexical structure with the consciously carried on by linguists subjective updating has become a specific feature of work on organization, codification and development of the Ukrainian vocabulary. In a chain of terms on the notation of the notion “bringing something into a uniform” there is a certain hierarchical subordination: systematization – normalization – unification – codification – standardization “observance of the only stable grammatical and stylistic norms on the national language”. The question of the place of special vocabulary in general dictionaries is one of the most difficult in modern lexicography, especially today, when there is an active replenishment of the vocabulary by terms of various branches of science, technology, production. Theoretical lexicography substantiates the necessity of introducing terms into the register of explanatory dictionaries, which is the core of the terminology and at the same time a part of the literary language. Practical work on the dictionary reveals various tendencies in fixing the new words of the special vocabulary: from the aspiration of its full coverage to the reasoned selection. There are several main criteria for selecting terminological units for a general-purpose dictionary: 1) the social significance of the terms of science and technology; 2) structural features contributing to the term adaption by the system of literary language; 3) the scope of the special vocabulary. The stable tendency of productivity growth of syntactic derivation in the Ukrainian language is noted – replenishment of the terminological fund by terms of phrases, and also the criteria of the selection of such multi-component phrases, their codification and standardization are outlined. The main tendencies, which are traced in the new dictionaries, are noted. One of the most important is devoted to the foreign words entry into Ukrainian and problems connected with their spelling. Violations of spelling norms caused by wrong adaptation of borrowings in modern dictionaries are pointed out, and the negative influence of spelling mismanagement of borrowings on the functioning of the Ukrainian lexemes is emphasized. As a result, a well-considered way of building and normalizing the Ukrainian literary lexicon is the principle of a reasonable balance between tradition and the need for renewal.