Papers reviewed and determined not to be word norm studies. Use the flag icon to report errors or suggest re-inclusion.
18265 papers
The article deals with reproducing contaminated speech of literary characters in the Ukrainian translation s of J. Steinbeck’s novel "East of Eden" and the play "Hysteria" by Т. Johnson. Contaminated speech (a foreign accent) is a wide-spread stylistic means of characterizing literary characters. The specific nature of the accent remains under the dispute among researchers in translation studies. Some scholars regard the accent as a phonetic phenomenon only. However, our research is based on V. Vinogradov’s statement that accent covers the speech deviations on all language levels. In addition, the important aspect of investigating accents is understanding that an accent is a product of language interference. The literature review contains the works of theoreticians and practitioners of translation studies (A. Fedorov, S. Florin, V. Komissarov, O. Kopyl’na, T. Nekryach, O. Rebrii, S. Vlakhov, etc.). The research relevance is determined by anthropocentric approach to text interpretation, which allows to investigate literary characters as language personalities. The object of the research is the constituents of Spanish and Chinese accents of literary characters. The subject of the research comprises the translation tactics of reproducing the foreign accents. The purpose of the research is to reveal the specific traits and components of the foreign accent of literary characters and to single out the optimal translation tactics for its faithful reproduction in translation. To achieve the aim, the following objectives have been set: to examine the specific features of foreign accents of literary characters and to highlight the specific translation tactics of rendering foreign accents. Results of research. Creative writers resort to imitating foreign accents to create original characters and emphasize their foreign identity. The specific traits of a foreign accent can be represented in fiction in the form of deviations from the literary norm on the phonetic, grammatical, and lexical levels. Reproducing these specific traits can be regarded as a translation challenge difficulties and requires special skill s on the part of translator. According to V. Komissarov, the natural sounding of a foreigner’s speech should be the top priority in accent reproduction. The Ukrainian translations of T. Johnson’s play "Hysteria" and J. Steinbeck’s novel "East of Eden" demonstrate successful reproducing of the Spanish and Chinese accents. While creating the Spanish accent of his character T. Johnson resorted to incorrect use of words, grammatical mistakes, distortion of the phonetic and morphological structure of words. These features of the character’s speech make an integral component of his language personality, which is carefully conveyed by the Ukrainian translator. In order to preserve all motivated deviations from the literary norm, the translator uses the parallel translation. In the absence of appropriate equivalents the translator resorts to compensation by applying distortion of phonetic, morphological, and syntactic norms. All the translation means represented in this translation seem to be optimal for creating a stage dialogue. Salvador Dali’s Spanish sounds natural and easy for audial perception, which is the most important in drama translation. While translating the Chinese accent, Tetiana Nekryach resorts to the parallel translation of phonetic distortions of words. The translation tactics of compensation is applied for rendering the grammatical mistakes in the character’s speech. All translation means are used for embodiment the author’s intent and increasing the impact on readers. Thus, the Chinese accent are reproduced on all language levels, including phonetic, grammatical, and lexical. Originality. The study of approaches to conveying foreign accents of literary characters, considering the specific nature of the accent, represents the research originality. Thus, the phonetic, grammatical, and lexical components of the foreign accents were investigated, and the optimal translation tactics of their rendering were singled out. Conclusions. In conclusion, it should be mentioned that due to the differences in structures of the target and source languages, it is impossible to fully reproduce contaminated speech on the all language levels in translation. Therefore, the translator should find the functional analogues for faithful reproducing a foreign accent. Among the optimal translation tactics of accent reproduction, the parallel translation and compensation are singled out. The perspective of the research lies in further investigation of contaminated speech and comparison between the translation tactics applied in drama and prose translation.
В современных русских говорах, несмотря на воздействие на них норм литературного языка, межкультурную контактность и деформацию в результате воздействия средств массовой информации, постепенное исчезновение диалектов в условиях цивилизации медиа, сохраняется лексическое ядро, в котором особое место занимает лексика нравственно-религиозной сферы. Наличие этого лексического пласта выделяет русский язык среди других в отношении аксиологической акцентированности земного и небесного. В настоящей статье обобщены наблюдения автора, касающиеся состава, семантики, сложения лексических гнезд, составляющих макрополе народного православия, формальной стороны словопроизводства единиц соответствующей лексики на общерусском фоне с привлечением материала, собранного автором статьи в Тамбовской области. Выделены разновидности структурных типов номинаций, определены особенности и приоритеты словообразовательной креативности. Для достижения целей исследования применялись методы сопоставительного, лексического, словообразовательного, компонентного анализа. Despite the influence exerted on them by the literary norms of the Russian language, despite the intercultural contacts promoted by mass media, and despite gradual annihilation of dialects provoked by media-propelled civilization, modern Russian dialects preserve their pivotal lexemes which are mostly related to the sphere of morality and religion. This lexical stratum, the axiological significance of the celestial and the earthly realms, distinguishes the Russian language from other languages. The present article summarizes the author’s ideas related to word formation, to the composition and semantics of lexical clusters of the macrofield of public orthodoxy. The analysis involves the material collected by the author in the Tambov Region. It singles out structural types of nominations, defines the peculiarities and priorities of creative word-formation. To achieve the aim of the research, the author employs such methods as comparative analysis, lexical analysis, word-formation analysis, and componential analysis.
The normative space of legal discourse does not only contain norms of various types and functions - regulatory and constitutive, formal and non-formal - but also implicates general value-based benchmarks of both social behavior of society in general and the representatives of political and state power and their "way of thinking". The article considers the correlation between the etymology of the English word, used in the text of legal discourse, and the cognitive reconstruction of the meanings of the concept «reasonable authority» on the example of Family Procedure Rules used in England and Wales. Etymological memory of a word is viewed upon in this study as a «mobile determiner» of the context, able to modify the conception of the UK judiciary. The etymology of a word should reveal the deep semantics of lexical units, uncover inferential characteristics and show the connotations of the word.
The article is devoted to the analysis of a fragment of Kyiv Rus’ linguistic picture of the world and to the reconstruction of human ethic orientations of the Early Middle Age. The aim of this scientific research is to highlight the semantic scope and functions of language units in the Kyiv-Pechersk Patericon are to describe the moral and ethic portrait of a monk. The proposed theme of a study allows updating the analysis aimed at the reconstruction of the Old Ruthenians ethical ideals. The Kyiv-Pechersk Patericon is the first original collection of lives of the Old East Slavic saints of the 13th century. It does not only fully describe the images of the first Rus’ ascetics, but thanks to its unique structure it is the only one among the East Slavic written papers, which gives a valuable possibility to unite different materials into a holistic picture of the moral life in ancient Kyiv. The linguistic means of depicting the moral and ethical characteristics of the inhabitants of the monastery became the subject of the study. It is concluded that in the selection of the characteristics of the monks in the text under consideration there is a tendency to idealize, focus on the literary etiquette norms and highlight the concept of the honor of the clergy. A special attention is paid to such qualities as the allegiance to Christian teaching, humbleness, restraint, mercy, expressed through about 40 positively connotated substantive and adjective lexemes (some negative characteristics are isolated and, therefore, are not involved in the analysis). The selected names don’t perform any terminological functions (they are not components of the titles of the highest ranks of the clergy or namings of the faces of holiness) but rather represent moral and ethical characteristics. In the use of most part of laudatory epithets-definitions there is a tendency to associate them with a specific person, which in the process of further canonization will be the basis for the inclusion of each of them in the certain category of sainthood. According to the origin and character of their use, these lexemes pertain to the church-bookish element. The consistency in refusing to borrow Greek or Latin words to denote the holiness idea indicates a high level of language and cultural-religion consciousness and can be regarded as the main feature of the Slavic choice in denoting this idea. The proposed article considers one of the fragments of the lexical originality of the Kyiv-Pechersk Patericon, which opens us prospects for further studies of this ancient text at different language levels.
Communicative skills are the leading tendency in the modern methods of teaching foreign languages. The article deals with the aim of such a system of teaching – the establishment of foreign language competence which contributes to the students’ communicative skills. One of the most important component of communicative competence is language competence, that provides on the basis of a decent amount of knowledge as the construction of grammatically correct forms and syntactic constructions, as an understanding the semantic segments of language, organized in accordance with the norms of a foreign language. Undoubtedly, verbal communication is possible only in the presence of language competence. However, removing only the language barrier does not automatically lead to a full-fledged foreign language communication. Rapid growth of international relations puts an increasing number of communicators in need of overcoming not only linguistic, but also cultural and mental barriers. Vocabulary teaching as an integral part of communicative and systemic aspects of foreign language learning is featured. Communication – based techniques of mastering lexical material are proposed. Mastering the purpose of the word, the conceptual functioning of lexical material is aimed at achieving adequate implementation of communicative intent. Useful for the formation and improvement of communication skills is the method of enriching the vocabulary of students by providing synonymous series with an explanation of the difference of meaning. Thus, learning a foreign language is communicatively oriented, so the leading component of the four-single complex of goals is the mastery of language skills for foreign language communication, taking into account its intention, addressee and conditions. Further development of tools and techniques for the formation of components of communicative competence will continue to be relevant in teaching foreign languages to students of non-language higher education institutions, that opens up opportunities for scientific and creative research.
This study focuses on repetition in legal texts and analyzes the use of lexical repetition across two different languages (English and Spanish) in texts produced at international institutions, namely the United Nations organization. Resolutions at the United Nations General Assembly are drafted in English and, although equally valid, Spanish versions are the product of a translation process. In comparing the weight of lexical repetition between English original texts and their translations into Spanish, the study will focus on Toury’s (1995) law of interference and notion of norms. To conduct the study, parallel corpora made of 20 English UN General Assembly Resolutions and their translations into Spanish will be analyzed in terms of type-token ratio (TTR/STTR) and lexical density. Then, t-test procedure using SPSS will be performed to see if the obtained results are statistically significant. The study will present findings on legal translation and translators’ behavior in international institutions.
Variability of the poetic norm in the context of globalization and nationally oriented processes, corresponding as two parts o f modem creation o f culture, currently prevails. 1 he main conseąuence o f globalization in Ukrainian lingual creative practice at the end o f the twentieth and beginning of twenty-first century, and the poetry o f New York Group, are the rethinking and renewal o f the traditional lexical-and-semantic paradigms as paradigms relating to image and text creation, making an effort to place Ukrainian poetry in the context of the broadest expanse o f world literaturę. Nationally oriented processes lead to an increase attention to the lingual-and-aesthetic signs of national culture and to the verbalization the national-and-philosophical idea.
The article studies the problem of interconnection and interpenetration of semiotic and gender discourses. The main linguistic level of gender representation is the lexical level in combination with the semantic one because the semantic parameters of the linguistic picture of the world are verbalized in the vocabulary. It is proved that with the help of feminine words the online newspaper Kolo solves a number of problems due to the institutional parameters of media discourse, which determine its context and represent four groups: social, cultural, ideological, communicative, semiotic. The general tendencies of the functioning of feminine words both in headings, and in texts are formulated: formation of public opinion (appeal to the formed stereotypes); subordination of plans of expression and content to the conditions of the mass communication environment (the question of interaction of language signs with signs of other types); establishing and maintaining trust in the sender of information by the recipient in order to ensure the reputation of mass media (compliance with the requirements of a gender-sensitive environment); preservation or violation of legal, cultural, ethical norms, worldview paradigm and picture of the world (correspondence and influence on the conceptual paradigm of the world). Gender discourse is presented in materials about the historical past, political, socio-economic, socio-domestic, cultural, sports, family life, criminal chronicle, health. Explicitly marked elements of gender form mainly the following lexical and semantic groups: names of persons by professional activity, occupation, names of persons by ethnicity, nationality, religion and belief, a territory of residence, position, rank, belonging to political groups, parties, character relationships with people of the opposite sex. Modern media realia make new demands on the online newspaper as: the publication of news in the form of a post, so it should be visible in the news feed. This task is realized by influencing through two channels of perception simultaneously: visual (image) and verbal (text). The course of all information processes takes place with the use of signs and sign systems. The visual content of the issues of the online newspaper Kolo includes illustrations – photos of men and women, as well as shared photos, gender accents are shifted to the female component. It is determined that the Ukrainian word-forming formant (-к-, -иц-, -ин-) in nouns of female names is the main feminine marker.
An attempt was made in the article to identify sources and ways to update the credit vocabulary in German at the end of XVII – mid XIX centuries. The article determines the structure of the correlated with the mentioned sphere German vocabulary during mentioned period. The article specifies the peculiarities of the analyzed terminology caused by both general trends in the development of the German language in the period of formation of the national norms of word usage (presence of a large number of synonymous and double-headed designations) and the specifics of folding of the lexicon of the financial and credit sphere (preservation of naming units of dying concepts, functioning of intermediate lexemes). The research allows us to state that at the current stage of credit terminology development the special dictionary is replenished in the course of lexical borrowing processes from such Western European languages as Italian and French. As for the intra-linguistic word-production of credit nominations, it took place mainly on the basis of word-producing resources in the course of semantic and morphemic derivation, with the obvious prevalence of addition.
The article analyses creative work of the German writers of the fourth migration wave. Stylistic, grammatical and lexical peculiarities of their works, including techniques of grotesque, usage of borrowings and neologisms, are identified. The paper aims to correlate the identified peculiarities with the norm of the German literary language. Originality of the study involves analysing syntactic and lexical peculiarities of the migrant writers’ novels.
The article analyzes the technique of including outdated, unused words of the Russian language, typical of M. Tyomkina's book of verses "Unvisual Aids". Such linguistic "memes" work as triggers for the self-reflection of the lyrical heroine, who has lived in America for a long time; at the same time, feeling the inextricable connection of her inner self with her mother's tongue, its meanings, phobias, and norms. The Russian words, popping up in her memory, sometimes colloquial, sometimes bookish, or professional-philological ones, form the depth of personality that cannot be realized in everyday life, in business and everyday conversations in English. The article shows that these words, which are "deeply drowned" in her "pre-memory" do not fulfill cognitive or communicative functions, but only psychological and poetic ones, acting as metonyms or "unvisual aids" for self-reflection. Immersion into the lexical and grammatical fields of the native language meanings plays the role of "sequence of times" (Tyomkina), the sequence of linguistic, historical and existential elements. This constitutes the originality of the author's cultural multi-identity. In rejecting the classical form of the Russian verse, Tyomkina develops the lyrical function of poetry through her special "recitative".
Reading comprehension is the process of reader’s interaction with a written language and making meaning from the text. Studies show that there is a great difference between skilled and poor readers in terms of using the fundamental strategies of reading comprehension, i.e., cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Due to the lack of appropriate tool for measuring adults’ reading comprehension level in Iran and the lack of appropriate criteria for selecting the texts for such a tool, the aim of this study was to make a placement tool for evaluating adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension level. It was amixed methods study and the aim was to answer three main questions about finding a text selection criterion for reading comprehension tests, using the selected criteria for making reading comprehension placement test and studying the validity and reliability of the devised test. Findings showed that text selection criteria should be fitted with patterns of international tests and the linguistic principles of text. The content validity of the text was approved by experts, after implementing their comments on the texts and questions. To ensure the test reliability and to do item analysis, the test was distributed among a sample of 60 MA students of University of Guilan at two stages. The reliability of the test was computed and Cronbach’s alpha were 0.84 and 0.82 respectively, showing the appropriate reliability of the tool. After normalization, this tool can be used to evaluate adult reading comprehension and in educational planning, it can be used for selecting the educational content. Introduction: Reading comprehension is the process of reader’s interaction with a written language and drawing meaning from the text. Generally, reading comprehension is a complex and multidimensional process which is done through two core processes. The first is decoding the symbols and recognizing the words, and the second is integrating the meaning of words in the context of the text (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; in: Atkinson, 2014). Learning reading comprehension is a long-term process; so it is at the end of the learning process that the adult reader can easily read different texts and draw the meaning from them. Studies show that there is a great difference between skilled and poor readers in terms of using the fundamental strategies of reading comprehension, i.e., cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Cain, Oakhill & Bryant, 2000). Weakness in the prerequisites of reading comprehension and failure in selecting the appropriate comprehension strategies are some of the important problems of students at different educational levels when reading different types of texts. Some international studies have been done on the reading comprehension such as PIRLS[1] and PISA[2] tests. During the recent years, the number of such studies has increased in Iran. Perhaps it could be due to the Iranian students’ low performance in the PIRLS test at different time intervals which shows their weakness in reading comprehension. Despite such weak results in international tests, and doing some related research in Iran, still there is no appropriate tool for determining the reading comprehension of Iranian people, especially adults. Living in the modern society needs learning and reading various texts. Despite the importance of this issue and the quantitative progress in the number of graduate students, there is no specific criterion to determine the educated adults’ level of reading comprehension. The development of higher education is a great scientific evolution that despite its positive effects has some shortcomings as well. One of the most important shortcomings is the lack of an appropriate placement tool for evaluating students’ reading comprehension in order to prepare suitable educational material. The aim of this study was to develop a placement tool for evaluating adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension. The study followed three main objectives, i.e. finding text selection criteria and the related questions for reading comprehension tests, using the selected criteria for developing reading comprehension placement test and finally determining the validity and reliability of the designed test. Questions: There were three main questions in this study: 1. What are the text and question selection criteria for developing a reading comprehension placement test? 2. Which reading comprehension placement test could be designed for adults, implementing the above-mentioned criteria? 3. Does the designed test have validity and reliability? Method: It was amixed methods study.The qualitative part included finding the text and question selection criteria for developing the adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension placement test and the steps of its development. Also, the quantitative part of the study included the pilot study of the mentioned test to determine its validity and reliability. The content validity of the test was checked by 5 experts. To examine its reliability, the test was distributed among two groups of MA students of the University of Guilan, who were selected using convenience sampling method (each group 30 students) with two months interval and the level of reliability was computed using Cronbach’s alpha. Along with calculation of the reliability of the test, the test items were analyzed in terms of item facility, item discrimination, and the distractors’ distribution. Findings: To select the texts, a combination ofcriteria introduced by the International Institute for the study of Reading Literacy for PIRLS test and Educational Testing Service (ETS) has been used. It was tried to match the selected texts in accordance with patterns of international tests and linguistic characteristics of the texts. These criteria included lexical and grammatical cohesion and also coherence of the texts. Taking into account all of the strategies underlying reading comprehension (i.e., inference-making, comprehension monitoring, text structure, etc.) the test questions were designed at 6 levels. These levels were selected based on the integration of Day and Park (2005) model and the design of TOFEL tests for reading comprehension placement tests. The content validity of the test was approved by 5 linguists, English language teaching, and Persian language teaching experts, after implementing their comments on the texts and questions. To ensure the test reliability, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used. First, the test was distributed among a sample of 30 MA students of University of Guilan and the level of Cronbach’s alpha was 0.82. Also, different levels of item analysis were conducted, including item facility, item discrimination, and the distractors’ distribution. To make sure of the reliability of the test, after revising the items, and with two months interval, the test was distributed among a new sample of 30 MA students of the University of Guilan. Again, the reliability of the test was computed and Cronbach’s alpha was 0.84, showing the appropriate reliability of the tool. Conclusion: This test could be used to assess adult Persian speakers’ level of reading comprehension and also its results could be used to select appropriate educational material. In the next step of this research, this tool should be distributed among a larger sample to determine its construct validity and also to compute its norms so that its results could be cited with more confidence. [1] The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study [2] The Program for International Student Assessment
Throughout their history, Jews have repeatedly lived in environments of foreign culture and language. In a foreign area they were a minority, which is why they quickly succumbed to the linguistic pressure of the environment. In addition to their native language, they began to use the language of the natives. They became bilingual. The contact of these two languages caused the occurrence of the process of interference (overlapping of languages), which consists in departing from the norm of one of the languages in the speech of a bilingual person. As a result of interference, a number of phonetic, morphological and lexical changes occur in the colloquial use of these languages. The next phase of language contact was the change of language. As a result of the change of language, the features of one of the languages were replaced by the features of the other, usually the language of the environment. As a result, the last phase of language contact was the process of forming a new hybrid language e.g. Yiddish or Judeoespañol.
A New Bilingual Phraseological Dictionary: A Polemical ReflectionThis article presents a critical analysis of the bilingual publication entitled A Lexicon of Polish and Ukrainian Active Phraseology (Leksykon aktywnej frazeologii polskiej i ukraińskiej / Leksykon pol′s′koï ta ukraïns′koï aktyvnoï frazeolohiï), compiled by Roman Tymoshuk, Wojciech Sosnowski, Maciej Jaskot and Yurii Ganoshenko. In the history of Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian phraseography of the twenty-first century, this is the second attempt at creating a bilingual phraseological dictionary, following the publication of A Concise Ukrainian-Polish Dictionary of Set Expressions: Lexical Equivalents, Phraseologisms, Proverbs and Sayings (Korotkyĭ ukraïns′ko-pol′s′kyĭ slovnyk ustalenykh vyraziv: Ekvivalenty slova, frazeolohizmy, prysliv′ia ta prykazky, Poznań and Kharkiv, 2017), compiled by Tetiana Kosmeda, Olena Homeniuk and Tetiana Osipova.The distinctive feature of the reviewed dictionary is that it contains phraseologisms which are most widely used in everyday speech. The compilers developed an original conception: (1) Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish parts differ in content, as they were compiled independently, yet most popular phraseologisms are included in both parts; (2) the most representative set expressions in active use in both languages were selected on the basis of questionnaires and mass media material; (3) entries include illustrative material; (4) it has an optimal size – about 1,000 phraseological units.On the other hand, the dictionary also has some drawbacks, such as: (1) it lacks key criteria for determining the status of the notion “active” phraseology; (2) it does not include slang phraseologisms which do not belong to literary language; (3) the meanings of phraseological units are described by means of simple syntactic structures which lack consistent criteria of clarity and comprehensibility of interpretation, and the dictionary does not cover all semantic potential and pragmatic information of the listed units; (4) excessively categorical interpretation of the notion zero equivalence; (5) not all entries contain stylistic labels, and those used are only of three types: slang, colloquial, vulgar; the label przyslowie/приказка (proverb) seems incorrect, as the compilers do not provide criteria of its separate status; (6) metalanguage of the dictionary is marked with some violations of orthographic and stylistic norms. Nevertheless, the dictionary has undoubtedly enriched the theory of phraseography, phraseographic practice and found its users. Polemiczna refleksja na temat nowego dwujęzycznego słownika frazeologicznegoNiniejszy artykuł przedstawia analizę krytyczną dwujęzycznego Leksykonu aktywnej frazeologii polskiej i ukraińskiej (Лексикон польської та української активної фразеології), autorstwa Romana Tymoshuka, Wojciecha Sosnowskiego, Macieja Jaskota i Yuriia Ganoshenki. Jest to drugi dwujęzyczny słownik frazeologiczny w historii ukraińsko-polskiej i polsko-ukraińskiej frazeografii XXI wieku, po Małym ukraińsko-polskim słowniku utrwalonych wyrażeń językowych: Ekwiwalenty, frazeologizmy, powiedzenia i przysłowia (Короткий українсько-польський словник усталених виразів: еквіваленти слова, фразеологізми, прислів’я та приказки, Poznań–Charków 2017) Tetiany Kosmedy, Oleny Homeniuk i Tetiany Osipovej.Cechą wyróżniającą recenzowany słownik jest jego zawartość – frazeologizmy powszechnie używane ca co dzień. Autorzy zastosowali oryginalną koncepcję, w myśl której: (1) pomimo że część polsko-ukraińska i ukraińsko-polska mają różną zawartość, powstawały bowiem niezależnie, każda z nich zawiera najbardziej popularne frazeologizmy; (2) najbardziej reprezentatywne wyrażenia wybrano na podstawie badań kwestionariuszowych i materiałów ze środków masowego przekazu; (3) hasła zawierają przykłady ilustrujące ich użycie; (4) słownik ma optymalną wielkość: zawiera około tysiąca jednostek frazeologicznych.Z drugiej zaś strony, słownik ma również pewne niedociągnięcia, wśród których należy wymienić: (1) brak określenia kluczowych elementów pojęcia „aktywna” frazeologia; (2) nieuwzględnienie wyrażeń slangowych nienależących do języka literackiego; (3) opis znaczeń frazeologizmów za pomocą prostych struktur syntaktycznych, którym brak spójnych kryteriów jasności i zrozumiałości interpretacyjnej, co sprawia, że słownik nie w pełni uwzględnia potencjał semantyczny i informację pragmatyczną przedstawianych wyrażeń; (4) zbyt kategoryczna interpretacja pojęcia brak ekwiwalencji; (5) nie wszystkie hasła są opatrzone kwalifikatorami stylistycznymi, a lista tych ostatnich ogranicza się jedynie do trzech: slang, potoczne, wulgarne; kwalifikator przysłowie/приказка wydaje się niepoprawny, jako że autorzy nie podają kryteriów, na podstawie których go wyodrębniono; (6) metajęzyk słownika cechuje się pewnymi naruszeniami norm ortograficznych i stylistycznych. Niemniej jednak słownik z pewnością wzbogacił teorię frazeografii i praktykę frazeograficzną, oraz spotkał się z zainteresowaniem ze strony użytkowników.
The problem of language interference being a process which retards the mastering of a second language, having appeared as a result of transference of speech skills from one contact language into another (from the native language into the foreign language, from the first foreign language into the second one), has concerned researchers for decades. This phenomenon has a direct influence on the success of an individual’s mastery of a foreign language and its use—involving both receptive and productive types of speech activities. Interference resulting from the negative impact of one language on another covers all linguistic levels of the language being studied, including lexical, which leads to deviations from the language norm and numerous lexical errors of students. Linguists and methodologists are trying to find ways to reduce the interference of the language being studied at the lexical level in order to optimize the process of mastering a foreign language and minimize lexical errors of students. The purpose of the current study is to investigate ways to overcome intra-language and inter-language lexical interference in junior courses of the Azerbaijan University of Languages and to verify the validity of these methods in the course of a practical experiment.
Käesolevas artiklis uuritakse kõrvutavalt originaaltekstiga Fjodor Dostojevski romaani „Vennad Karamazovid“ kahte eestikeelset tõlget, mille autoriteks on Aita Kurfeldt ja Virve Krimm. Analüüsi objektiks on jutustaja muutlik diskursus, mille eripära avaldub stiili ebaühtluses ehk muutlikkuses. Jutustaja „takerduval“ kõnel on romaanis oluline funktsioon, mis seisneb kaootilise, ebakindla kunstilise maailma loomises. Eestikeelseid tõlkeid vaadeldakse võrdluses lähtetekstiga mitmel mikrostilistilisel tasandil: kesksõnatarindid, sõnade ja sõnatüvede kordus, modaalsõnad, deminutiivid, fraseoloogilised üksused, grammatilistest normidest kõrvalekaldumine.
 
 The article studies two Estonian translations of Dostoyevsky’s novel The Brothers Karamazov by Aita Kurfeldt and Virve Krimm, comparing them to the source text. The tradition of translating Dostoyevsky’s works into Estonian has its beginning in the 20th century. It started with Johannes Aavik’s experimental translations and was continued by the classic of Estonian literature A. H. Tammsaare – in 1929, the first Estonian translation of Crime and Punishment appeared in the latter’s translation. In the 1930s, preparations began in Estonia to publish Dostoyevsky’s collected works in 15 volumes, and, as part of this initiative which involved several translators, the novel The Brothers Karamazov first appeared Estonian in Aita Kurfeldt’s translation (1939–1940). Kurfeldt’s translation was later edited and updated by Helle Tiisväli, and the new edition published by the Kupar publishing house in 2001. In the 21st century, the novel was translated for the second time and published by Varrak with an afterword by Peeter Torop in 2015–2016. The translator was Virve Krimm, a capable and talented translator who had already translated Dostoyevsky’s Demons as well as other books by classic Russian authors, e.g., Turgenev’s novel Home of the Gentry, his stories and prose poems; she had also been a co-translator of Tolstoy’s War and Peace. In Krimm’s obituary by the Translators’ Section of the Estonian Writers’ Union, her translation of The Brothers Karamazov was highly appreciated. Both translations were made during times free of the prescriptive norms of the Soviet regime. If ideological coercion in the narrower sense of the word (the authorities’ pressure on translators, editors and publishers) is considered, both translations can be regarded as expressions of the translators’ free choice – both were completed in free Estonia. 
 A conspicuous characteristic of Kurfeldt’s translation is her word-for-word reproduction of Dostoyevsky’s phrases or whole syntactic periods, preserving even the word order. The author of the later translation as well as the later editor of Kurfeldt’s translation have clearly tried to actively oppose Kurfeldt’s tendency towards literal translation. Still, the first translator’s “literal translation” cannot be claimed to be an indicator of dilettantism, as Kurfeldt’s attempts to copy Dostoyevsky’s syntax and even punctuation may be viewed as an essential effort to revive the narrator’s changeable, clumsy manner of speech in The Brothers Karamazov.
 This article analyses the narrator’s transmutable discourse, the peculiarity of which is expressed in the inconsistent or unstable style, as well as its translations into Estonian. In the novel, the narrator’s inconsistent speech has an essential function which consists in creating a chaotic, unstable artistic world. Studies of Dostoyevsky’s poetics have often drawn attention to the peculiarity of the narrator’s style and tone in his works. Mikhail Bakhtin noted that the narrator’s word constantly fluctuates between two extremes – the dryly informative, recording word and the word depicting the character. The researchers who have followed or developed Bakhtin’s theoretical conception have also noted that such inconsistent and hesitant narration style approaches, or actually is, non-literary language. As Aage A. Hansen-Löve has shown, the spontaneous or chaotic manner of narration was characteristic of the vanguard or initial period of Russian realism, but it was also preserved in the movement during its later years. Dostoyevsky modelled the type of the “non-professional” narrator as early as in the 1840s. The speech of this narrator is knowingly “non-literary”. The writer’s “carelessness with words” has also been described and analysed in literary studies as a deliberate device realised at different levels of the narrative: in composition (e.g. the stylistic inconsistency in chapter headings), syntax, lexical paradigm, structure of phraseological expressions and deviations from language norms.
 In this article, the Estonian translations are viewed in comparison with the source text on several microstylistic levels: participial constructions, repetition of words and word stems, modal words, diminutives, phraseological units, deviation from grammatical norms. The comparative analysis of the translations in the article does not attempt to characterise the translations in full, but only discusses the key tendencies in rendering the narrator’s unstable speech. The theoretical basis for the analysis derives from the virtual model of different translation types presented in Peeter Torop’s article “Tõlkeloo koostamise printsiibid” (“Principles of compiling translation history”, 1999).
 In conclusion, it appears that Kurfeldt’s translation is a text dominated by an orientation towards the expressive plane of the source text. The word order in sentences, punctuation marks, modal words and their positions in the text are rendered exactly. Still, the translation is inconsistent at the microstylistic level: the translator tries to replace functional repetitions occuring in the text with synonyms, changes participial constructions into subordinate clauses, and presents participles as verbs in the third person; in a number of cases Kurfeldt also omits words and phrases. The edited translation has undergone essential changes in its turn – the editor has striven for stylistically correct, fluent, “proper” speech which sometimes remains rather far from the original.
 Krimm’s translation has a considerably more complicated structure. Initially, it can be said that Krimm’s translation is oriented simultaneously towards the content plane of the source text, i.e. towards lexical and semantic precision, and sometimes also towards an equivalence with the rhythmic and intonational level of the expression plane of the original. Still, the precision of translating other levels of the expression plane of the original depends on the essentiality of the translated elements in the structure of the novel. Similarly to Kurfeldt, Krimm does not attempt to preserve diminutives, as these grammatical forms are not characteristic of the Estonian language. Thus, opting for an orientation mainly towards the expressive plane of the target text, Krimm continues many aspects of her personal tradition of translating Russian classics from the second half of the 20th century. Choosing the expression plane of the target text as a dominant was characteristic of many other Estonian translators in the Soviet period, as such a translation strategy compensated for the lack of political freedom. 
 The conclusions of the article concern only the recreation of the narrator’s uneven speech in the Estonian translations of The Brothers Karamazov by Kurfeldt and Krimm and, at this stage, do not expand to encompass other layers of the complicated structure of Dostoyevsky’s novel in the texts by the two translators. The article serves as the beginning of a study: further, both translations could be viewed in a broader ideological context, considering the dependence of concrete translation solutions on the translation norms of the 1930s, the normative requirements for literary translation in the 21st century, problems of editing of translations, as well as aspects related to political, literary, linguistic, intermedial and other translation-related contexts.
Abstract This paper reviews Louw’s (1993 and subsequent publications) deployment of reference corpora in the light of existing philosophical and linguistic milestones when it comes to the notion of the truthfulness of a proposition. Louw (William Ernest. 1993. Irony in the text or insincerity in the writer? The diagnostic potential of semantic prosodies. In Mona Baker, Gill Francis & Elena Tognini-Bonelli (eds.), Text and technology: In honour of John Sinclair, 152–176. Amsterdam: John Benjamins) resorts to reference corpora in order either to explicate a rhetorical device (in Louw 1993, that of irony) or to attempt to reveal the true attitude of the speaker to his/her own proposition (including instances of insincerity). Using two methods (co-selection and wildcarding), an author’s collocational patterns in context are checked against those in the reference corpus, also in context. The frequent lexical variables of grammar strings are taken to represent that string’s corpus-derived subtext. Recently, Louw’s Contextual Prosodic Theory (CPT) has revealed the mechanism of prospection, whereby the grammatical pattern in the first line of a poem anticipates by its most frequent lexical collocates the themes in the remainder of the poem (Louw, Bill & Milojkovic, Marija. 2016. Corpus stylistics as contextual prosodic theory and subtext, 176–183. Amsterdam: John Benjamins). The philosophical background of Louw’s CPT is the works of Frege, Russell and Wittgenstein (Louw, William Ernest. 2010a. Collocation as instrumentation for meaning: A scientific fact. In Willie van Peer, Vander Viana & Sonia Zyngier (eds.), Literary education and digital learning: methods and technologies for humanities studies, 79–101. Hershey, PA: IGI Global and subsequent works) and could be said to be in need of further explanation and illustration. The paper discusses Louw’s take on insincerity (1993) as the speaker’s attitude to the truthfulness of her own statement from the point of view of Frege’s Sinn/Bedeutung distinction, Russell’s logical language, and Wittgenstein’s attitude to the relationship between language and reality. Since prospection may be considered objective proof of the effectiveness of Louw’s approach, an instance of prospection from a poem by Brodsky is used to show that Wittgenstein’s concern for the truthfulness of propositions may be viewed as both the guarantor and the beneficiary of Louw’s views. Additionally, the paper presents an example of prospection in the first line of a novel, Don DeLillo’s White Noise. However, other grammatical patterns in the passage studied in this paper do not contain deviations from the corpus norm, which conforms to the existing commentary on DeLillo in the field of literary criticism. The paper concludes by stating that reference corpora used inductively (Louw, William Ernest. 2017. Uneasy humour as discovery: Collocation and empathy as Whewellian consilience. Studying Humour: International Journal 4) may shed light on the speaker’s attitude to the truthfulness of their own statement.
Over the last two decades, the literature on bilingual children has shown that children who grow up learning two languages do not typically differ in their total vocabulary size compared to their monolingual peers (Poulin-Dubois et al, 2012) though composition may be smaller compared to size with two word-forms representing one lexical concept. However, these studies often sample children from minority bilingual communities (Bialystok et al, 2010) where the languages may be used in somewhat separate contexts. By contrast, in Singapore more than 90% of young people are bi-/multilingual, and dense inter-generational community-level multilingualism is the norm. The education system has an active policy of bilingualism and the majority of children grow up in households where they hear two or more languages/dialects (forthcoming). In recent years, English has become the most frequently reported main language at home for children between ages 5-10 (2010 Singapore Census) indicating rapid language change. This language environment provides a unique opportunity to investigate individual differences in vocabulary development in a non-WEIRD massively multilingual community. \nUsing archival data from the longitudinal birth cohort ‘Growing up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes’ (GUSTO), we investigated the size and linguistic composition of the expressive vocabularies of 140 24-month-olds whose parents filled out local adaptations of the MacArthur-Bates CDI in Mandarin and English. \nIn terms of composition, we find that the proportion of lexical concepts that a child can express in both their languages makes up 40% of their lexicon (Range: 5-537). The bias towards English language dominance is evident (Fig 1), but even the most extreme children are reported to have no more than 50% of their lexicon coming from only a single language. \nRegarding vocabulary size, pooled across languages, vocabulary size ranged from 8-760 (25th, 50th, 75th percentile: 67, 179, and 271 word-forms respectively). These values are notably lower than reported vocabulary sizes for age-matched samples in OECD countries like the UK, North America, and Australia (Oxford CDI, English (American), French (Quebecois), and English (Australian) versions of the Mac-Arthur Bates CDI, Wordbank, 2019). This mismatch is surprising given Singapore’s rankings in standardized educational assessments such as the PISA (OECD, 2018), and suggests that the current assessment tools may be missing an important part of children’s linguistic repertoire. \nIn response to this finding, our multilingual team has identified an entire tier of child-directed words that is not captured in vocabulary inventories adapted from monolingual materials. Many of these local-words aren’t easy to identify as belonging to one language or another (e.g., ‘pom-pom’ for ‘children’s bathing’) and likely arose from Singapore’s dense contact language environment where language mixing and translanguaging are normative. Without any national dictionaries for Singapore, this special tier of child-directed words exist mainly in oral language and have yet to be documented. In response to this finding, our current work includes collecting age of acquisition estimates for over 200 core local words, and developing a new vocabulary assessment to help discover how cheem (profound) the vocabularies of tiny Singaporeans really are.
IntroductionGibraltar is a British Overseas Territory at the southern tip of Spain which was ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.Today, Gibraltar has a population of approximately 30,000 and the only offi cial language is English ( Levey 2015: 66; Central Intelligence Agency 2016 ).Also widely spoken are Spanish and the local Andalusianbased Spanish variety called Llanito (or Yanito), characterized by extensive codeswitching and lexical borrowing from English (as well as from other languages and dialects; see Kellermann 2001;Levey 2008 ).In this linguistic context, the present study focuses on concepts for which a (traditionally more) British variant and a (traditionally more) American variant coexist.More precisely, we investigate two referentially synonymous expressions that are known, or consistently reported in standard reference works and textbooks, to have diff ered in usage between British English (BrE) and American English (AmE) in the late twentieth century (cf., e.g., Algeo 2006; Krug and S ö nning 2017 for web data).On the basis of n = 312 questionnaires (i.e. a sample of roughly one per cent of the population), we investigate what linguistic choices Gibraltarians make in cases such as lorry vs. truck or parcel vs. package.In order to place Gibraltar with regard to the two major norm-providing varieties of English and in order to identify patterns of variation and change, we compare questionnaire data from Great Britain and the US.Th e status of Gibraltar English (GibE) is special in a number of ways.Gibraltar has been labelled an 'unusual British colony' ( Weston 2015: 647), and attempts at linguistic description have been characterized as suff ering from a 'mismatch between its colonial status and sociolinguistic theory' ( Weston 2011: 339), for example in terms of categorizations of GibE within models of World Englishes (such as Kachru's Concentric Circles Model or Schneider's Dynamic Model of Postcolonial Englishes).While Spanish-English language contact is omnipresent ( Kramer 1998; Su á rez-G ó mez 2012: 1746-8; see also Table 8.2 below), it is clear that GibE does not epitomize what can be considered a typical L2 variety for a number of reasons.First, the vast majority of the current population in Gibraltar speaks English as a fi rst language or can at least be considered highly fl uent (see www.
Abstract Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland ( 1865 ) and Through the Looking-Glass ( 1871 ), two linguistic treatises in disguise, create ingenious fantasy worlds where the rules of language and the conventions of communication are turned upside down. What is (semantically) illogical or (pragmatically) inappropriate confounds Alice, who struggles to make sense of nonsense and to keep the order of a polite, rational world in place. In her dialogues with anthropomorphic animals and objects, ambiguity and fallacy coexist with interactive manipulation, while her communicative expectations crumble and comic misunderstandings arise. This article looks into the construction of linguistic and pragmatic transgressions in Carroll’s acclaimed books with a view to unveiling their contribution to impoliteness. On the one hand, the paper analyses the structural mechanisms of wordplay vis-à-vis phonetic, morpho-syntactic and lexical ambiguity. On the other, it examines the pragmatic strategies whereby speech-act infelicities, conversational maxim violations, and bald-on-record clashes contribute to reversing the established conventions of (polite) social interaction. The premise guiding the analysis is that the pervasive existence of double meaning and incongruity in the Alice books underlies not only linguistic phenomena such as punning, neologism, and relexicalisation, but also interactive patterns, in which the expected norms of courteous conduct in social exchanges do not obtain. The antithetical and script-oppositional (hence, humorous) nature of this process defrauds outsider Alice – the victim, but at times the happy recipient, of the uncooperative challenges of this inverted, refracted, teasingly nonsensical world.
Abstract This study investigated the perceptions of high school EFL learners to the lexical instructional approach intervention in the contexts of learning vocabulary and grammar. Besides, an attempt was made to explore what difficulties the participants encountered during the experimentation. The data collected through the questionnaire were analyzed using a one-sample t-test, and the results showed that the estimated sample perception mean score was significantly higher than the hypothesized population perception mean score. This implies that EFL learners had positive perceptions towards the lexical instructional approach in the contexts of learning vocabulary and grammar. The data collected through interviews were analyzed qualitatively and the findings showed that students enjoyed and were interested in learning vocabulary and grammar through the lexical instructional approach. Students realized the importance of lexical chunks in learning vocabulary and grammar. In this regard, the interview results corroborated the results obtained from the questionnaire. Students encountered difficulties like lack of lexical awareness, lack of clear and adequate instructions on some activities, the lack of deliberate attention from some students during discussions, the lack of making some activities more interactive and engaging, and some classroom managerial problems. Finally, it was recommended that EFL teachers at high school should design their lexical approach-based activities systematically by considering their students’ interests, feelings, perceptions, levels, norms, cultures, and psychological setups.
This article is devoted to the development of a linguistic model for describing the concept WOMAN. The material is women’s dialect discourse. The sources of the material are the Tomsk dialect corpus which includes materials of expeditions organized by dialectologists of Tomsk State University from 1946 to the present days on the territory of Middle Ob dialects spread. In the article we used modeling method based on the idea of the nominative field of a concept, as well as an interpretation technique relying on analysis of contexts, and a method of quantitative calculations used in relation to units that represent the concept. Lexical and phraseological units that make up the nominative field of the concept were revealed during the research. These units were divided into the following lexical-semantic groups: 1) the general nominations of a female person; 2) age and status in marriage; 4) status in the family hierarchy; 5) anatomical and biological characteristics; 6) character traits and behavior; 7) appearance characteristics; 8) profession and work processes. Elements of different layers of the concept are revealed in each lexical- semantic group. All of them give a general picture of ideas about women. So, the basis for identifying of gender conceptualizations and stereotypes is the presence of linguistic oppositions of male and female; the presence of a large number of lexical units that reflect the status of marriage (girl, bride, young woman, wife, mistress, old woman, widow, old girl, brooch and so on); lexical pairs that are opposed to each other on the basis of evaluation “positive” – “negative” (clean, clean – dirty, mistress – disheveled, etc.). A large number of words that negatively assess certain qualities and behavior of women (gossip girl, market woman, stramovka, etc.) indicate the high requirements imposed on the woman, the condemnation of deviations from social norms. The content of the concept of WOMAN depends on the specifics of rural existence, which is based on work, the presence of patriarchal gender stereotypes, social and historical events and processes. The significance of the research is determined by the possibility of using its results for development of a new interdisciplinary scientific field – gender dialectology that studies the gender characteristics of the dialect.
Being a completely new communicative environment, the internet network generates new designations (including verbal) for several phenomena. Among them, there are blended nonce-words that are on the verge of norms violation. A number of these lexical units, which should be considered as a demonstration of linguistic personality creative potential, are related to the stock vocabulary of native twenty-first century Russian-language speakers. This phenomenon occurs various languages and different cultures. Therefore the article dwells upon blended neologisms, including native Russian and borrowed elements. The predominant role of situation and context in that pattern is obvious: those nonce-words have not been fixed in lexical system yet. Contaminants should be treated as an evidence of sustainable development of the whole language system, as a component of various discourses as well as integral part of everyday communication (via the internet network), and slang. Non-standard structure as well as combination of native and borrowed elements in blended nonce-words, provide them with strong emotive and expressive potential. Keywords: blended nonce-words, Internet communication, word building, borrowing
The new rhetoric of modern poetry which is characterized by conciseness and ambiguity has set it different from other poetic movements in English which in turn has made it the central focus of many researchers and scholars leading many of them to write about the ‘distinction’ of this type of literature. This study tackles the translation issue of modern poetry in view of the idiosyncrasies of content and form. The study investigates the issue of foregrounding following Geoffrey Leech’s (1969) linguistic deviation theory with special focus on lexical, grammatical and semantic deviations with the assumption that the idiosyncrasies in the language of modern poetry are a result of the distrust modern writers demonstrate of the ability of language to convey meanings and the lack of communication that mars the modern reality of man. Through examining various excerpts of modern poetic texts, one could infer that some translators who were sensitive to the importance of these deviations opted for retaining them often by utilizing compensatory methods. This is mainly related to the fact that it is difficult to replicate the exact same idiosyncrasies, especially in a language that belongs to a different family and does not have much in common with English. Other translators, however, were heedless of the implications of these deviations and decided to change them, or to translate them in harmony with their readings and Arabic language structure and norms. Nonetheless, the researcher claims that there is no ‘wrong’ or ‘right’ translation; there is always a better translation or a translation that is closer to the source text. Each translation offers a different ‘reading’ of a translated text that is influenced by the translator’s metaphysics of presence and by his/her spatiotemporal realities. The study concludes that these deviations are essential in augmenting the meaning potential of texts and in obviating the fallacious notion of a ‘transcendental signified’ in addition to being a fundamental aspect in the formulation of a comprehensive reading of any modern poetic text. This results in making faithfulness in translating modern works imperative since any deviation from its modes of expression will blur the map of this forceful trend in the history of poetic evolution. تتناول هذه الدراسة مسألة ترجمة الشعر الحديث من اللغة الانجليزية الى العربية في ظل التحديات الناتجة عن التجديد في مضمون وشكل الشعر الحديث مقارنة بالحركات الشعرية الأخرى، وتهدف الدراسة بشكل اساسي للبحث في مسألة التقديم اللغوي بالاعتماد على نظرية ليتش (Leech, 1969) للانحراف اللغوي مع التركيز بشكل خاص على الانحراف في المعاني النحوية والدلالية مع افتراض أن الخصوصيات في لغة الشعر الحديث هي نتيجة لعدم الثقة في قدرة اللغة على نقل المعاني وانعدام التواصل الذي يشكل السمة الاساسية للمجتمع الحديث. ومن خلال دراسة الأمثلة المختلفة، استنتجت الباحثة أن بعض المترجمين كانوا على درجة عالية من الوعي فيما يتعلق بأهمية هذه الانحرافات، فاختاروا الحفاظ عليها في كثير من الأحيان عن طريق استخدام الطرق التعويضية بسبب صعوبة تكرار نفس الخصوصيات، وخاصة في حالة اللغة العربية التي تنتمي إلى عائلة لغوية مختلفة عن اللغة الإنجليزية، في حين أن البعض الآخر آثر تعديل هذه الانحرافات في ظل قراءته للنص او من خلال ترجمتها في وئام مع اللغة العربية وقواعدها ومع ذلك، لا يمكن الحكم على أي من القرارات على أنها "صحيحة" أو "خاطئة"، بل يمكن وصف بعض القرارات بأنها اكثر وعيا من غيرها. وخلصت الدراسة إلى أن هذه الانحرافات ضرورية للحفاظ على إمكانيات النصوص التفسيرية، وتجنب الاعتقاد الخاطئ حول "ثبات المدلولالات"، بالإضافة إلى كونها جانبا أساسيا في صياغة قراءة شاملة لأي نص شعري حديث، مما يحتم على على المترجمين تطوير وعي كامل بالمعاني التي تثيرها هذه الخصوصيات لتمكينهم من اختيار طريقة الترجمة المناسبة التي تحقق العدالة للنص المستهدف وقرّاءه.
This article discusses features of the implementation of linguistic norms in international treaties.The proposed study has a purpose to identify linguistic means present in international document texts, i.e. treaties that are to fix the agreement that parties achieve with a view to establishing relations and regulating them in future. The research material is 1000 texts of international treaties. The total amount of factual material analyzed is over 6000 pages. Our methodology is based on the works by domestic and foreign authors on general theory of speech activity, laws of perception and understanding of speech, and the peculiarities of the generation of a statement, translation theory, and international law. One of the most important means of expressing information in a text is its lexical composition. International treaties texts comprise different types of vocabulary (common, terminological, specialized, etc.) that performs text- and style forming functions. From the point of view of grammar, compiling international treaties involves using particular grammatical forms and categories, syntactic structures and types of phrases. The essence of international treaties texts implies the presence of special clichs of a business style. In the preparation and editing of international treaties, the adequate use of appropriate vocabulary and grammatical means leads to a reduction of ambiguities and discrepancies in the texts of these documents.
Difficulties in describing such notions as vernacular, common slang and slang and the reference of certain lexical units or texts to a particular language phenomenon stem from the variety of opinions and ways of defining each of them. These debatable questions have become more distinctive in Russian linguistics with the growing contacts with European linguistic schools and therefore copying the terms without adapting them to Russian theory of language. The using of these terms is becoming chaotic due to the fact that modern Russian linguistics often neglects the basic achievements of Soviet linguistics in the field of distinguishing language varieties. The article considers two approaches to the definition of vernacular, common slang and slang: from the point of view of their being fully functional language varieties and from the point of view of their functional facilities. As a result of the analysis of the data about language varieties, a conclusion is drawn about the common and different in these concepts. If these notions considered as similar to major language varieties such as standard language, standard colloquial speech and territorial dialects, then they cannot be called fully functional language varieties, since they have an extremely vague social base, they are characterized by a low degree of standardization, functional diversity and the intersection of their lexical content. Thus, it can be concluded that such language phenomena belong to the specific kind of language variations that are defined by their transitional nature. If functional facility of vernacular, common slang and slang is considered, it is worth noting that there are a lot of stylistically marked lexical units in slang. They are slightly less numerous in vernacular, and even less numerous in common slang. This peculiarity stems from the fact that common slang includes lexical units able to function as the fillers of the gaps in standard language, standard colloquial speech or territorial dialects. It should be noted that the lexical units of all three language phenomena are used in various communication situations even by the people who are well versed in the norms of the standard language. The fact that lexical units belong to vernacular, common slang or slang does not prevent well-educated speakers from using all stylistic functions of such units. Speakers who know the difference between standard and slang or vernacular words are able to vary these language tools to attract the attention of a certain category of people (for example, for advertising, communicating with youth, etc.).
This paper presents a multilingual legal information retrieval system for mapping recitals to articles in European Union (EU) directives and normative provisions in national legislation. Such a system could be useful for purposive interpretation of norms. A previous work on mapping recitals and normative provisions was limited to EU legislation in English and only one lexical text similarity technique. In this paper, we develop state-of-the-art text similarity models to investigate the interplay between directive recitals, directive (sub-)articles and provisions of national implementing measures (NIMs) on a multilingual corpus (from Ireland, Italy and Luxembourg). Our results indicate that directive recitals do not have a direct influence on NIM provisions, but they sometimes contain additional information that is not present in the transposed directive sub-article, and can therefore facilitate purposive interpretation.
The article clarifies the functional and stylistic parameters of evaluation as a linguistic category, which covers different levels of language units with evaluative semantics and conveys the positive or negative attitude of the speaker to the named subject, phenomenon, concept. Positive or negative semantic scale of evaluation is formed in accordance with certain social, national-cultural, moral values. Logical (rational) and emotional (irrational) assessment in the text interact. Logical evaluation is motivated by objective thoughts, and emotional – the feelings of the subject to the object (person, object, phenomenon, event, etc.). Units of logical evaluation are words and phrases with positive and negative semantics from the intellectual sphere of linguistic thinking, and units of emotional – expressive-connotative linguistic means. Evaluation is done through the use of language units registered in dictionaries or in the memory of native speakers in terms of their values: good and evil, truth and falsehood, justice and injustice, benefit and harm, beauty and ugliness, allowed and forbidden. Evaluative semantics is revealed in the appropriate contextual conditions, in particular in updating the structure and semantics of components, stylistic marking of syntactic units. The combination of logical and emotional assessment allows closely related to the communication situation pragmatic evaluation of the text as a whole, in particular verbal acts of approval, encouragement, commitment (plus on the scale) or vice versa condemnation, contempt (minus on the scale), which are based on a common fund knowledge and norms of interlocutors. The stylistic potential of evaluation in the text is revealed on lexical, phraseological, syntactic levels. Texts differ in style and content differ in the way they express verbal axiology.
‘You may have beer or wine’ suggests that you may have beer and you may have wine. Following Klinedinst, I argue that this ‘free choice’ effect is a special kind of scalar implicature, arising from the application of an unspecific predicate to a plurality (of worlds). I show that the implicature can be derived from general norms of cooperative communication, without postulating new grammatical rules or hidden lexical items. The derivation calls for an extension to the classical neo-Gricean model. I give independent arguments for this extension.
The color picture of the world, in our opinion, is included in the cultural and conceptual picture of the world. The distribution of a particular color in the culture, household items, costumes, and works of art of a people depended on their customs, traditions, religious beliefs, and aesthetic norms. The linguistic color worldview is realized in the form of color meanings in separate lexemes, phrases, idiomatic expressions and other verbal means.it is organically included in the lexical system of the language worldview. The article discusses the use of features chloronema black in phraseology of Russian and Mari languages. Based on the analysis of the estimated values of phraseological units with the black component, a conclusion is made about the General negative attitude to this color in the axiological picture of the world of speakers of the studied languages.
The key problems of modern linguistics are the establishment and description of the relationship between the semantic foundations of the language, the national mentality, and the culture of a particular ethnic group. At this point, ethnospecific vocabulary is of great interest to linguists, as well as for representatives of cultural studies, sociology, and ethnography. In this regard, this article is aimed to identify the features of national currency nominations that have a number of quantitative and qualitative characteristics in the German language, which is manifested at the level of frequency of use, as well as in terms of combinability at the level of syntagmatics. The methodological basis of the study were the main provisions of the theory of cognitive linguistics and the use of corpus technologies in the analysis of lexical units. The author compared data from paremiographic sources with data from the German language corpus "Digitales Wrterbuch der deutschen Sprache" (DWDS) on ethnospecific lexical units with subsequent identification of cognitive-discursive features of the analyzed group of lexemes. The obtained data can be taken into account when describing the mechanisms of formation and maintenance of national identity, translation of norms and values in the German-speaking ethnocultural society.
Generic masculines – masculine forms used for women – are employed in many languages, for example English (Mills 2008), French (Coady 2018), Spanish (Bengoechea 2011) and German (Motschenbacher 2016), providing accounts of how gender is made visible in the language through morphological, lexical and syntactic units. These accounts are also linked with how gender is seen in societies and culture, reproducing an imbalance between women and men. Specifically, language discrimination against women is based on the idea that speakers orient themselves towards androcentric language, recognising ‘men’ as a metonym for the group ‘human being’ (Alvanoudi 2014), causing a linguistic invisibility of women. Similarly, studies in Italian have also discussed the use of masculine forms to refer to, talk about and describe women (Cavagnoli 2013), or have shown how these are used in specialised (Nardone 2016, 2018) or media corpora (Formato 2014, 2016, 2019). This article investigates the use of a specific (and underexamined) generic masculine in Italian – namely, the indefinite pronoun uno.m.sg (in comparison with una.f.sg) labelled ‘impersonal masculine’ (Formato 2019:69) – in three subcorpora of the Perugia Corpus (TV, Web and Spoken; Spina 2014). Uno.m.sg is seen as constructing ‘extended intersubjectivity’, that is, the awareness of a general third party (3rdP) acting as the social bearer of the utterance (Tantucci 2013, 2016, 2017a). The results show that the masculine impersonal uno.m.sg is widely used in the three subcorpora and in several functions, confirming that grammatically gendered language is still employed within a ‘masculine as a norm’ order.
The article states that journalistic broadcasting is intended to create public opinion or to develop an exact attitude of society towards certain phenomena and events of internal political and international life. The Ukrainian-Russian surzhyk is not only focused on the linguistic taste and contemporaries’ sharp speech attention, but also on the position of cognition through its affiliation with another language, Russian in particular, because of its high frequency and semantic correction in accordance with fashionable communication. In the language of mass communication at the beginning of the XXI century, surzhyk often serves for the transmission of linguistic illiteracy, the absence of the language culture of the heroes of publications, as well as to attract the attention of readers to the person, events, phenomena referred to in the text. The Ukrainian-Russian surzhyk is basically the correspondence to well-known and widely used normative words. They are presented mainly in quotations of heroes of publications. It was found out that pejorative vocabulary means lexical units, the lexical meaning of which includes the connotative aspect (negative emotional sem), which expresses the negative attitude of a speaker to an addressee. That may be often vulgar, versatile, slang vocabulary. Researchers of pejorative vocabulary in the language of the press notice that the printed media texts are full of general neutrality of the narrative tone, but in recent times the use of lexemes with a negative assessment has significantly intensified. In the language of modern mass media among surzhykisms such thematic groups are distinguished: the words of politeness, tokens on the designation of food, names of household things, items of everyday use, personal things, also surzhykisms are used in the sphere of trade between the seller and the buyer; sometimes they have an ironic coloration, and so on. We consider that the surzhyk is a kind of Ukrainian national language that arose as a result of use of words of the Ukrainian and Russian languages by the speakers; it is created out of any norms and poses a threat to the national language. Surzhik has a number of objective prerequisites, the historical character associated with the Russian factor in particular. Many years of planting the Russian language could not but affect the purity of the Ukrainian language.
BACKGROUND/AIMS: The number of different words (NDW), an essential measure of lexical diversity, is extremely valuable towards providing data regarding children's language development. However, in Cyprus, practitioners are deprived of the opportunity to utilize NDW, as no normative data exist for toddlers who speak Cypriot Greek (CYG). METHODS: The language samples of 36 monolingual CYG-speaking toddlers (aged 36, 40, 44, and 48 months) with a typical course of language development were collected and quantitatively analyzed. Based on the language sample analysis, we ascertained typical NDW values at the aforementioned ages and tested through a linear mixed-effects model whether gender and age affected NDW. RESULTS: The results showed that age significantly predicted NDW increase; gender did not emerge as a significant predictor of NDW, but this may be due to the small statistical power. CONCLUSION: This study intends to provide the first step towards longitudinal investigation of the level of NDW for CYG-speaking children with a typical course of language development. The provided data, which could serve as preliminary norms, may be used - under some restrictions for the time being - during language assessment. Moreover, these acquired data could contribute to the development of an NDW database for diverse CYG-speaking populations of different age ranges in the future.
Russian speakers make up the biggest group of foreign-language speakers in Finland. Their use of Finnish words in Russian discourse can be interpreted as an example of multilingual practices, such as code-switching. It can also be viewed as an example of how loanwords are assimilated. While speakers of Russian in Finland are part of a worldwide internet community, they also represent a local community that can have a language form of its own. This article presents an analysis of about 500 cases of Finnish lexical items and word combinations usage in written Russian (260 different lemmas). The material for the research was selected from written internet discourse of a Russophone community on Facebook, a social media platform. Members of this community are Russian women who have been living in Finland for some time. The Finnish words were studied in the context of posts and replies to them. The 475 Finnish words found amounted to 4 % of the total 12,022 words used in the source. The analysis of the material took into account semantic and grammatical features of the items. Semantic features included the categories of proper nouns, terms and other words related to life in Finland. The grammatical analysis began by studying the choice of writing system, i.e. whether the units retained their original spelling which is either in Latin or in Cyrillic. After that, the Finnish words that had been transliterated were studied for the presence or lack of declension as compared to the Russian norm in similar uses. It was suggested that the tendency not to decline Finnish words written both in Cyrillic and Latin in the discourse also affected the syntactic positions in which they were used, making positions that did not require declension overrepresented. The number of examples subjected to the assimilation rules for loanwords in Russian (transliteration and using declension) was small. Therefore, most of the examples represent code-switching, a natural consequence of those living in Finland, and provide evidence for the existence of a local version of Russian.
The article deals with sociolinguistic analysis of modern official female onomasticon of Ukraine. Its dynamics reflects processes, which are taking place in language system, and changes in society, social demographic and ethnic pattern, cultural markers and values, even the extent of legal regulation of social relations. Sociologists are interested in personal names as a means of social categorization and differentiation of individuals. Legists see them as a tool for one’s legalization and as an object of legal protection. Anthropologists study them as special units of communication and interaction between generations. For linguists they are a specific typexplore them linguists – ists of means of lexical nomination. Linguistically onomasticon is a valuable source of information on the current state of language norms, level of linguistic culture of the population, and the status correlation between languages in society. According to the date of the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine, the repertoire of newborn girls’ names in 2015–2019 exceeded half a thousand units. It’s due to the magnitude of globalization processes in naming, restoration of national naming traditions, rising social freedom in choosing names, and, sometimes, the decay of sense of responsibility in naming and insufficient language culture. About third part of female names appears as phonetic, orthographic and morphological variants. Ukraine is a multinational state and representatives of other nationalities and national minorities maintain their own naming traditions. Ukrainian spelling of these names in documents often is inconsequent. Often variants arise due to the ambiguity of transliteration, Ukrainian-Russian language interference and violation of Ukrainian spelling standard. Much less it is a result of alive alternation in the Ukrainian language. Rows of variants of the same official female name consist from two to five or six units. Among them there are normative and anomalous variants. In first case main and optional variants can be distinguished. Optional variants are not conventional in language practice but they do not violate the essential features of national language system (over time, some of them may become more popular than the main variant). Linguistically such variants are the same unit, the natural manifestation of potentialities of language system. But legally, person’s name can’t be spelled differently in her documents.
The corpus, from which a predictive language model is trained, can be considered the experience of a semantic system. We recorded everyday reading of two participants for two months on a tablet, generating individual corpus samples of 300/500K tokens. Then we trained word2vec models from individual corpora and a 70 million-sentence newspaper corpus to obtain individual and norm-based long-term memory structure. To test whether individual corpora can make better predictions for a cognitive task of long-term memory retrieval, we generated stimulus materials consisting of 134 sentences with uncorrelated individual and norm-based word probabilities. For the subsequent eye tracking study 1-2 months later, our regression analyses revealed that individual, but not norm-corpus-based word probabilities can account for first-fixation duration and first-pass gaze duration. Word length additionally affected gaze duration and total viewing duration. The results suggest that corpora representative for an individual's longterm memory structure can better explain reading performance than a norm corpus, and that recently acquired information is lexically accessed rapidly.
Введение. Влияние современных медиа на мировоззрение и поведенческие установки социума остается малоизученным. Поведенческие нормы, транслируемые в формате ток-шоу, являются основаниями оценочных высказываний, соотносятся с ценностями разных типов. Диалектические отношения компонентов аксиологического комплекса обусловливают целесообразность их совместного рассмотрения. Цель статьи – выявить и описать поведенческие нормы, оценки человека и ценности социума, репрезентированные в одной из передач ток-шоу «Андрей Малахов. Прямой эфир». Материал и методы. Используется лингвоаксиологический анализ – семантический анализ единиц разных уровней языка и категорий дискурсивной природы, направленный на выявление нормативно-оценочных значений в сфере поведения человека. Этапами анализа являются определение типичных средств выражения данных значений и формирование на их основе фактологической базы исследования, классификация высказываний по соотнесенности с определенными видами ценностей, реконструкция соответствующих поведенческих норм, интерпретация результатов с учетом сведений об особенностях формата ток-шоу. Результаты и обсуждение. Наряду с лексико-фразеологическими единицами языка, оценочно-нормативные значения регулярно выражаются маркерами деонтической модальности, грамматическими средствами укрупнения масштаба ситуации, лексико-грамматическими показателями отступления от нормы; кроме того, в их трансляции участвуют выводные знания. В репертуаре ценностей преобладают утилитарно-материальные. Поведенческие нормы коррелируют с традиционными ценностями разных социальных групп и ценностями постсоветского времени. Влияние формата передачи на представление аксиологических значений заключается в релятивном (от противного) описании норм поведения и в уровне их обобщенности, в жесткой сбалансированности оценок по знаку, в преобладании личных ценностей над общественными, утилитарно-материальных – над духовными. Предложена и апробирована методика описания аксиологического комплекса «поведенческие нормы, оценки человека и ценности социума», репрезентированного в медийном тексте, имитирующем дискуссию о социально значимой проблеме. Заключение. Сделанные выводы коррелируют с результатами, полученными в работах по другим гуманитарным направлениям. Вследствие пресуппозитивной природы семантики нормы ее лингвистическая реконструкция предполагает внимание к неспециализированным языковым средствам, а также явлениям дискурсивной природы. Introduction. The influence of modern media on the worldview and behavioral attitudes of society remains poorly understood. Behavioral norms, broadcast in the format of talk shows, are the basis for evaluative statements, are correlated with the values of different types. The dialectical relations of the components of the axiological complex determine the feasibility of their joint consideration. The goal is to identify and describe behavioral norms, assessments of a person and the values of society represented in one of the programs of the talk show “Live with Andrey Malakhov”. Material and methods. Linguoaxiological analysis is a semantic analysis of units of different language levels and categories of discursive nature, aimed at identifying normative and estimated values in the field of human behavior. The stages of the analysis are the identification of typical means of expressing these values and the formation on their basis of a factual basis for research, the classification of statements according to their relation to certain types of values, the reconstruction of relevant behavioral norms, the interpretation of the results taking into account information about the features of the talk show format. Results and discussion. Along with the lexical and phraseological units of the language, estimated and normative values are regularly expressed by markers of deontic modality, grammatical means of enlarging the scale of the situation, lexical and grammatical indicators of deviation from the norm; moreover, in their translation involved knowledge. Utility-material prevail in the repertoire of values. Behavioral norms correlate with traditional values of different social groups and post-Soviet values. The influence of the transmission format on the presentation of axiological meanings lies in the relational (from the negative) presentation of the norms of behavior and in the level of their generality, in a strict balance of sign ratings, in the prevalence of personal values over social, utilitarianmaterial – over spiritual. A methodology for describing the axiological complex “behavioral norms, assessments of a person and the values of socie-ty”, presented in a media text imitating a discussion about a socially significant problem, is proposed and tested. Conclusion. The findings correlate with the results obtained in works in other humanitarian areas. Due to the presuppositive nature of the norm semantics, its linguistic reconstruction presupposes attention to non-specialized language means, as well as discursive phenomena.
It is the norm in lexicography to have dictionary headwords in the standard variety of the language. But up to date, no Igbo dictionary exists in this variety. Most Igbo lexicographers have adopted the dialectal or multidialectal approach in their choice of a citation-form. The multiplicity of Igbo dialects accounts for this situation. This paper examines both sound and lexical variations in the language; describes the lexicographic problems of choice and arrangement of headwords, and discusses the suitability of the Igbo dictionary as a tool for standardizing the language. Two major sources of data were employed: the modified Ibadan 400 wordlist of basic items - used for a survey of the seven dialect zones identified by Manfredi (1989), and the dictionaries of Welmers and Welmers (1968), Williamson (1972), Igwe (1999) and Echeruo (2001). The paper demonstrated that sound and lexical variants in Igbo can be harnessed by Igbo lexicographers to produce an Igbo dictionary in the standard variety. Considering the optimal benefits derivable from a standard dictionary, the following suggestions for future Igbo lexicographers are proffered: words from different dialects of the language should be included in the dictionary; the standard forms be selected and consistently entered as headwords. Words with sound variation should be treated as sub-entries and lexical variants be cited as main-entries in their right alphabetical positions. The paper argued that, for the Igbo dictionary to fulfil its indispensable role as a language standardizing tool, the production of a Standard Igbo dictionary is imperative in Igbo lexicography and Igbo language studies.
The phenomenon of language game as a way of creating a journalistic image, also humorous, ironic, satirical, can be called one of the most actively developing traditions in modern Russian media. The aesthetics of postmodernism has increased interest in both the language game and the humour – an effective way to assess the events of reality, and to express the author's position. In the situation of language inflation, the audience, tired of the news, formed a request for a multifunctional text, involving co-creation, provided exactly by language game. Researchers define "the virus of irony" as a characteristic feature of modern media text, with the paradigm of irony constantly expanding: from light humor to destroying sarcasm and grotesque. The paper attempts to identify and systematize the functional types of language game as a way to create a comic effect. On the basis of the analysis of prominent journalists’ works the authors determined the techniques of language games, which are most actively used to create the humour – humorous, ironic, satirical – image. These are paronomasia, pun, occasionalisms, transformation of phraseological units, stylistic contrast. Language game as a deliberate violation of the norm is manifested at different levels of the text: grammatical, lexical-semantic, syntactic, and stylistic. The role of the humour in the headlines of modern publications of different directions is also characterized. Special attention is given to principles for the publicists’ appeal to laughter as a simple and sharp form of criticism that allows implementing a variety of communicative intentions: humour, outrage, and others.
The paper deals with the problem of the studying of dialectal personality phenomenon, in particular the researching of the Eastern Polissian dialectal speakers’ metalingual consciousness. The purpose of the study is to analyze the Eastern Polissian dialectal speakers’ metatextual utterances about the peculiarities of the dialectal language at different language levels in the context of scientific researches. Sources of the research is classified dialectal material collected by the field method and recorded by the author in 76 villages of Chernihiv and Sumy oblasts during 2009–2019, using a special questionnaire devoted to the study of verb vocabulary semantic variation, and recordings of dialectal speakers’ texts-stories. Metatextual utterances were recorded on occasion. Dialectal material of lexicographic and linguogeographical sources, which contain information about the studied linguistic phenomena, are also used. Based on the analyzed dialectal material it is concluded that dialectal speakers evaluate the dialectal language in compliance / inconsistency with the established norm with a focus on their own dialect, other dialects, which language, according to dialectal speakers’ opinion, is close to the Ukrainian literary language, and the Ukrainian literary language. It is found out that dialectal speakers are aware mainly the phonetic (accent variation, substitution of unstressed [o] through [a], equivalents */o/ in stressed closed syllable, hardening of [p]) and lexical features, ignoring word-formation, morphology and syntax. It is stated that in metatextual utterances dialectal speakers first of all pay attention to the functioning of dinphthongs / monophthongs in dialects and to the substitution of unstressed [o] through [a] - the phenomenon of akannia, which, according to researchers’ opinion, is the edge of the Eastern Slavic akannia area and has no influence of the Ukrainian literary language. It is determined that most of the data of the Eastern Polissian dialectal speakers’ metalingual consciousness confirms by the author’s recorded dialectal material and information from various scientific researches.
Bilingual children show more variation in their language development than monolingual children, a fact that has been linked to their experience with their languages. Bilingual language experience also varies more than monolingual children's, both in terms of how much they hear the language spoken around them (exposure) and how much they speak the language themselves (production). This dissertation investigates the following aspects of the relationship between bilinguals’ language experience and development which are not well-understood: how children’s language production relates to their proficiency in that language, how children’s language exposure relates to receptive versus expressive and lexical versus grammatical skill, and how factors such as social context, cognates, working memory and indirect exposure contribute to bilingual proficiency. I investigate language experience and English proficiency in young school-aged bilinguals acquiring French and English in France. I use data from parental and child interviews to estimate English exposure – how much children regularly hear English – and two facets of English production – output, or how regularly children speak in English, and inter-speaker code-switching, which refers to how regularly children respond in French when spoken to in English. Those measures are then related to English proficiency scores from a picture-identification task, a picture-naming task, and a sentence repetition task targeting grammatical structures ranging in difficulty. The first objective of this study is to better understand bilingual children’s language production as it relates to their language proficiency. I find that how much children switch to speaking in French when addressed in English (inter-speaker code-switching) is closely related to all concurrent English proficiency scores and that this relationship is independent of and stronger than proficiency’s relationship with exposure. The more children switch to French when spoken to in English, the lower they score on all proficiency measures, receptive and expressive vocabulary, and sentence repetition, even when holding their level of English exposure constant. The second objective of this study is to investigate possible limits to the general pattern found in a large body of research on bilingual exposure, which is that lesser exposure leads to lesser skill in that language. First, language exposure may affect receptive skills less than expressive skills. Second, grammatical knowledge may also be less closely related to exposure than lexical knowledge. There are conflicting findings in the literature. My findings are consistent with a weak relationship between receptive skills and language exposure in bilingual children. Despite having lesser exposure to English (34% of their total language exposure), children in this study did not show a relation between variation in exposure and their English receptive vocabulary scores. In these children, the relationship between exposure and grammatical proficiency was similar to that with lexical proficiency. The third objective is to investigate additional contributors to bilingual proficiency. Previous research suggests that children’s socioeconomic status (SES), the status of the languages they speak, and the existence of cognates in their languages make contributions to bilingual children’s proficiency, and may in turn modulate the effect of diminished language exposure (e.g. Cobo-Lewis, Pearson, Eilers, & Umbel, 2002a; 2002b; Thordardottir, 2011). My results suggest that SES and high prestige of the languages being acquired may partially mitigate – though not eliminate – the effect of diminished exposure on bilinguals’ home language proficiency. Similar to findings for other bilingual children from mid- to high-SES backgrounds, these children showed age-related growth in English proficiency, and their English receptive skill differed minimally from monolingual norms. However, the effect of lesser exposure to English can be seen more clearly in their expressive skills, which were lower than monolingual norms and were predicted by variation in their English exposure. The effect of cognates in French and English was also investigated in terms of the advantage they conferred on my measures of lexical proficiency. This effect was significant in both receptive and expressive measures; thus, I conclude that the presence of cognates may also mitigate the effect of bilingual exposure. Finally, this investigation also examines additional individual factors that can influence language proficiency, but which have rarely been taken into account in studies of bilingual proficiency and both its relationship to exposure and production. Specifically, variation in children’s working memory and their exposure to language through overhearing adult conversation have both been linked to language learning in monolingual contexts but are not well understood in the context of bilingual development. In this study, verbal and visuospatial working memory were positively related to English proficiency scores. Indirect exposure from overheard English spoken between parents was not related to proficiency scores when holding direct English exposure from parents constant. However, indirect exposure was related to how much children produce English themselves to their parents, even while holding direct exposure constant, indicating that language use between parents may influence children’s language production with parents. This study contributes to our understanding of how bilingual language exposure and production relate to bilingual language proficiency in the following ways: first and most importantly, it adds to the small but growing literature that shows a strong link between bilingual children’s own production of a language and their lexical and grammatical skill in that language. It is also the first to my knowledge to find that a measure of children’s language production, inter-speaker code-switching, is negatively related not only to expressive but also to receptive lexical skill in the language that children switch from. Secondly, the finding that children’s English exposure is unrelated to their English receptive skill (but related to age, indicating continuing growth in these children) affirms exposure’s differential relationship with receptive versus expressive skills. It also documents a limited role for exposure in a new population (French-English bilinguals in France), supporting the role of cognates, socioeconomic status of children, and high social prestige of languages being acquired in mitigating the effect of bilingual exposure. Finally, in finding an independent contribution of working memory to lexical and grammatical skill in bilinguals, it highlights that these measures should be considered when investigating variation in bilingual proficiency.
The topic of this thesis is the computational methods for measurement of authorialstyle and algorithms of authorial attribution.The first aim of the thesis was an attempt at a quantifiable separation of various layers of authorial style (in the present case the lexical and grammatical layers) in order to estimate their influence on the results of a chosen method of authorial attribution. Within the scope of these studies I compared the distance, so called Burrows's Delta, between a pair of English novels by two chosen authors and automatically generated texts, whose statistical distributions of parts of speech were borrowed from one of the authors, while the vocabulary from the other one; additionally, in the computatrificial texts I left the sets of words of the first author if they belonged to a particular part of speech. Such procedure allowed to create a hybrid text, which was attributed to the first author, even though the majority of lexical items were that of the second author.The second aim was to identify the influences of the style and language of the original on the style of the translation. This part of research involved among others adapting Polish and English part of speech tag sets to form a common translatorial tag set. Beside making a couple of simple observations concerning the distributions and coocurrences of parts of speech in the two languages, I managed to determine some features of the selected translatorial corpus, which lie on the fringes of what seems a norm for Polish.The third aim was testing the accuracy of state of the art (unsupervised) clustering methods for automatic grouping of texts according to their author. The results show that the methods recognise authorship worse than the known supervised machine learning methods.In the thesis I made use of corpora totalling around 550 digitised English language novels and 100 Polish ones, as well as a parallel corpus of 39 novels of a single English author together with their translations by a single Polish translator. The research conducted involved utilising existing part of speech taggers (both for English and Polish), authorship attribution programmes, and programmes for graph clustering.
The article discusses the possibility of using author’s dictionaries as sources for replenishing the general language explanatory dictionary of the Ukrainian language. By the beginning of the 20th century, Ukrainian author’s lexicography acquired clear features of a separate vocabulary direction. Index words, concordances, complete and differential dictionaries, monolingual and bilingual have been published. In addition to dictionaries in a book format, electronic dictionaries, online dictionaries are now being created. Оne of the tasks of the writer’s dictionary is to describe the individual characteristics of the author’s language, in a broader sense, to popularize the linguistic personality. On the other hand, the material from the author’s dictionary serves as a factual basis for updating the register, semantic, stylistic characteristics, illustrative material of general language explanatory dictionaries. A number of researchers emphasize the need for a close relationship between explanatory lexicography and the author’s one for the successful development of national vocabulary work. “Dictionary of the language in Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko’s works” in 3 volumes occupies a special place among the author’s dictionaries for such characteristics as structure, volume. It includes all words, phraseology contained in a six-volume edition of the writer’s works, in other publications, in archival works. Kvitka-Osnovianenko is the founder of the prose genre in Ukrainian literature. As evidenced by the materials of the “Dictionary of the Ukrainian language” in 11 vol., its compilers turned to Kvitka-Osnovianenko’s works to fill in the vocabulary zones. Nevertheless, the materials of the “Dictionary of the language in Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko’s works” contain language units that may be of interest to compilers of large explanatory dictionaries. These are deminitives that are characteristic of the language of many genres of Ukrainian literature, as well as phraseological units. An example of the author’s non-fiction lexicography is the dictionary of the language of the publicist I.M. Dziuba, which is currently being developed. In Soviet times, the works of a well-known literary critic and publicist were not used as literary sources for the selection of words or illustrative material in explanatory lexicography. The materials of the language dictionary of I.M. Dziuba represent a significant resource for replenishing the vocabulary of the explanatory dictionary, for filling in the structural zones of the dictionary entry. The presented specific examples of word usage by the two authors correspond to lexical, word-formation norms. Further scientific and lexicological study of such linguistic facts will show the possibility of their involvement in explanatory lexicography. Keywords: author’s lexicography, general language explanatory dictionary, vocabulary register, H.F. Kvitka-Osnovianenko, language of works by I.M. Dziuba.
Language is closely related to the norms and customs of its speakers. Language reflects the character, expression, and culture of the speaker, both oral and written. Social media as one of the means to express feelings through words or sentences, in its development, makes some users forget politeness in language. Comments and uploads on social media often contain swearing or swearing. This does not only happen in Indonesia but also the use of language in the use of local languages, including Malay Ternate (BMT) a language of inter-ethnic in North Maluku. This study aims to describe the lexical and pragmatic meanings of BMT speech that contain swearing.The results show that the form of swearing in BMT sentences on social media uses animal names such as anjing and babi, curses with bodysuch as trada otak, and negative professions such as lonte, bangsat, janda longgar, and janda ayam-ayam, curses in the form of phrases such as bendahara dgn ijazah SMA sj, curses of adjectives such as sombong, biadab, makan puji, and kurang ajar, curses of verbs such as cukimai, curses in the form of sentences such as ngn itam baru anjing itu putih, curses that describe the state of a person like ngn itam, and curses using plant names like kalapa kao. The remarks in the BMT mean expressing feelings of anger, annoyance, disappointment, and humiliation.
In this Letter, the authors introduce a novel approach to learn representations for sentence‐level paraphrase identification (PI) using BERT and ten natural language processing tasks. Their method trains an unsupervised model called BERT with two different tasks to detect whether two sentences are in paraphrase relation or not. Unlike conventional BERT, which fine tunes the target task such as PI to pre‐trained BERT, twice fine‐tuning deep neural networks first fine tune each task (e.g. general language understanding evaluation tasks, question answering, and paraphrase adversaries from word scrambling task) and second fine tune target PI task. As a result, the multi‐fine‐tuned BERT model outperformed the fine‐tuned model only with Microsoft Research Paraphrase Corpus (MRPC), which is paraphrase data, except for one case of Stanford Sentiment Treebank ‐ 2 (SST‐2). Multi‐task fine‐tuning is a simple idea but experimentally powerful. Experiments show that fine‐tuning just PI tasks to the BERT already gives enough performance, but additionally, fine‐tuning similar tasks can affect performance (3.4% point absolute improvement) and be competitive with the state‐of‐the‐art systems.
This paper attempts to measure the similarity of frequently occurring modal auxiliaries in both L1 and L2 writings. The modal auxiliaries are known to be difficult areas of study for both L1 and L2, due to the overlapping in their use. A subset of TOEFL11 corpus and a subset of PTB(Penn Treebank) corpus were used to capture the similarities among modal auxiliaries within L1 and L2, respectively, and also across L1 and L2. Based on the hypothesis of distributional representation, similarities of modal auxiliaries were computed by applying cosine similarity and mutual information to every pair of words in the corpus, and then finally reducing dimensions with Singular Value Decomposition. The results show that the modals are found to be similar to other modals, and the distribution of modals in the reduced dimensions show that the modals in L1 and those in L2 exhibits different patters of similarities, while the distance among the modals in L1 is further away than the distance among those L2 modals.
As edições digitais na área de clássicas têm surgido como aliadas no rompimento de barreiras e no enfrentamento de desafios no ensino das línguas e culturas clássicas. O objetivo deste artigo é destacar algumas características específicas de edições digitais das Letras Clássicas, como possíveis elementos de gênero na sua produção e sua leitura digitais, supondo serem uma forma de contribuir para a mobilização da aprendizagem das línguas clássicas e a formação docente na área. Descrevemos, de um lado, os componentes essenciais no processo de uma edição digital nova do texto grego do Édipo Rei, de Sófocles, preparado na Universidade Furman, para um curso de graduação. De outro, apontamos de que modo as anotações de edições digitais, em alinhamentos, treebanking e geoanotações, na qualidade de experiências de aprendizagem, são potenciais instrumentos de desenvolvimento.