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The tenth volume in the series Pauline Studies centers on Paul and his use of Scripture. After an introductory essay by Stanley Porter, the collection unfolds in four parts. Part one consists of three general essays. Stanley Porter probes Paul’s use of Scripture and argues for the default working presumption that his scriptural citations are drawn from the Septuagint, even when the Septuagint matches the Hebrew text. Ryder Wishart uses vector space analysis to identify a monosemic value for νόμος, concluding that its baseline gloss should not be “law” but “custom”—a social norm that is not necessarily legislated. Gerbern Oegema observes lexical similarities between Gal 1:13–14 and 1–2 Maccabees. This suggests that Paul’s pre-Christian life was influenced by zealot theology that flowed within Maccabean thought, rather than what inspired the freedom fighters who fought against Rome.Part two focuses on Paul’s use of Scripture in the letter to the Romans. Colin Kruse surveys Paul’s scriptural citations and allusions so as to elucidate his scriptural hermeneutic, not least of which is the conviction that the OT still functions as the inspired Scripture of the church despite believers’ living no longer under the regulatory norm of the Mosaic law. Tom Holmén examines Rom 3 and the theodicean situation brought about by God’s saving act in Jesus, asserting that Paul references Scripture to show how the new covenant Spirit enables believers to do genuinely good things. Jey Kanagaraj also focuses on Rom 3. Through his exegesis of the chapter, he holds that Paul uses Scripture as a significant source for his theological construction.Part three comprises half the book and consists of seven studies on the Corinthian letters. H. H. Drake Williams explores the scriptural understanding of the recipients of 1 Corinthians and maintains that they were more literate than what has been commonly presumed. Panayotis Coutsoumpos argues that Paul’s language and use of ἀδιάϕορα in 1 Cor 8–10 is informed by his own theological framework, despite sharing similarities with Stoic thought. John Cook maintains that Paul had in mind Hos 6:2, when he wrote in 1 Cor 15:4 that Christ was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures. Ilaria Ramelli inspects Paul’s use of Pss 8 and 109 in 1 Cor 15:24–28, claiming that, in light of the patristic writings and ancient versions, Paul transformed these psalms for his eschatological project. James Harrison affirms that Paul uses a rhetoric of consolation in 2 Cor 1:3–11 and 7:4–13 to heal the hurts and the rifts that were brought about by the deviant person in Corinth. Christopher Land analyzes Paul’s use of Exod 34 in 2 Cor 3:13–14. He concludes that Moses did not veil his face so that the Israelites could not stare at his fading glory; rather, Moses did it as an affronted withdrawal from their unbelief. Craig Blomberg contends that 2 Cor 8–9 can be divided into three sections, each of which is governed by a central OT quotation.Part four contains essays on the other Pauline letters. Linda Belleville investigates the Sinai-Μεσίτης tradition in Gal 3:19–20, claiming that the presence of a mediator highlights Israel’s weakness and need rather than the inferiority of the law. Lau Chi Hing applies Porter’s criteria for direct quotations to the use of Job 13:16 in Phil 1:19, contending that his criterion of formal correspondence (with a minimum of three words found in the earlier texts) is overly broad. Markus Öhler surveys Paul’s use of Scripture in 1 Thessalonians and Philippians, noting that future work should focus on the historical situation behind Paul’s writing of the letter and its reception by the original readers. Finally, Arland Hultgren considers the use of Scripture in the Pastoral Epistles and observes that it is different from the undisputed Pauline letters. Paul uses Scripture to further his theological arguments; the author of the Pastorals, however, uses it in hortatory contexts to support the leadership of the church.This volume is a welcome contribution to the study of Paul’s use of Scripture. It contains not only essays by seasoned scholars but also works from newer scholars. The international scope of the contributors is also commendable, spanning countries as diverse as the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Belgium, Finland, India, and China (Hong Kong).The contributions in this volume are grouped into four areas: three touch on general issues, four on Romans, seven on the Corinthian letters, and four on the other Pauline letters. I would appreciate seeing a few more essays that focus on methodological issues and other Pauline letters such as Colossians or Ephesians. If space was a concern (this volume, after all, is the longest that has appeared in the Pauline Studies series thus far), the number of essays on the Corinthian letters could have been reduced.A few essays in this volume are particularly significant. Wishart demonstrates a creative way for obtaining a baseline semantic contribution of νόμος; Land presents an innovative reading of the Exod 34 tradition in 2 Cor 3; and Belleville wrestles judiciously with the μεσίτης tradition in Gal 3. Some essays, however, do not rigorously engage with the main focus of this volume, that is, with the relationship between Paul and Scripture. For example, Coutsompos does not mention how Paul uses or understands Scripture in his discussion of ἀδιάϕορα in 1 Cor 8–10; and Holmén’s analysis of Paul’s use of Scripture in support of his theodicean solution in Rom 3 is minimal and cursory. These essays might be better served by placing them in a different volume. Nonetheless, this volume is a commendable addition to the series Pauline Studies.
A New Bilingual Phraseological Dictionary: A Polemical ReflectionThis article presents a critical analysis of the bilingual publication entitled A Lexicon of Polish and Ukrainian Active Phraseology (Leksykon aktywnej frazeologii polskiej i ukraińskiej / Leksykon pol′s′koï ta ukraïns′koï aktyvnoï frazeolohiï), compiled by Roman Tymoshuk, Wojciech Sosnowski, Maciej Jaskot and Yurii Ganoshenko. In the history of Ukrainian-Polish and Polish-Ukrainian phraseography of the twenty-first century, this is the second attempt at creating a bilingual phraseological dictionary, following the publication of A Concise Ukrainian-Polish Dictionary of Set Expressions: Lexical Equivalents, Phraseologisms, Proverbs and Sayings (Korotkyĭ ukraïns′ko-pol′s′kyĭ slovnyk ustalenykh vyraziv: Ekvivalenty slova, frazeolohizmy, prysliv′ia ta prykazky, Poznań and Kharkiv, 2017), compiled by Tetiana Kosmeda, Olena Homeniuk and Tetiana Osipova.The distinctive feature of the reviewed dictionary is that it contains phraseologisms which are most widely used in everyday speech. The compilers developed an original conception: (1) Polish-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-Polish parts differ in content, as they were compiled independently, yet most popular phraseologisms are included in both parts; (2) the most representative set expressions in active use in both languages were selected on the basis of questionnaires and mass media material; (3) entries include illustrative material; (4) it has an optimal size – about 1,000 phraseological units.On the other hand, the dictionary also has some drawbacks, such as: (1) it lacks key criteria for determining the status of the notion “active” phraseology; (2) it does not include slang phraseologisms which do not belong to literary language; (3) the meanings of phraseological units are described by means of simple syntactic structures which lack consistent criteria of clarity and comprehensibility of interpretation, and the dictionary does not cover all semantic potential and pragmatic information of the listed units; (4) excessively categorical interpretation of the notion zero equivalence; (5) not all entries contain stylistic labels, and those used are only of three types: slang, colloquial, vulgar; the label przyslowie/приказка (proverb) seems incorrect, as the compilers do not provide criteria of its separate status; (6) metalanguage of the dictionary is marked with some violations of orthographic and stylistic norms. Nevertheless, the dictionary has undoubtedly enriched the theory of phraseography, phraseographic practice and found its users. Polemiczna refleksja na temat nowego dwujęzycznego słownika frazeologicznegoNiniejszy artykuł przedstawia analizę krytyczną dwujęzycznego Leksykonu aktywnej frazeologii polskiej i ukraińskiej (Лексикон польської та української активної фразеології), autorstwa Romana Tymoshuka, Wojciecha Sosnowskiego, Macieja Jaskota i Yuriia Ganoshenki. Jest to drugi dwujęzyczny słownik frazeologiczny w historii ukraińsko-polskiej i polsko-ukraińskiej frazeografii XXI wieku, po Małym ukraińsko-polskim słowniku utrwalonych wyrażeń językowych: Ekwiwalenty, frazeologizmy, powiedzenia i przysłowia (Короткий українсько-польський словник усталених виразів: еквіваленти слова, фразеологізми, прислів’я та приказки, Poznań–Charków 2017) Tetiany Kosmedy, Oleny Homeniuk i Tetiany Osipovej.Cechą wyróżniającą recenzowany słownik jest jego zawartość – frazeologizmy powszechnie używane ca co dzień. Autorzy zastosowali oryginalną koncepcję, w myśl której: (1) pomimo że część polsko-ukraińska i ukraińsko-polska mają różną zawartość, powstawały bowiem niezależnie, każda z nich zawiera najbardziej popularne frazeologizmy; (2) najbardziej reprezentatywne wyrażenia wybrano na podstawie badań kwestionariuszowych i materiałów ze środków masowego przekazu; (3) hasła zawierają przykłady ilustrujące ich użycie; (4) słownik ma optymalną wielkość: zawiera około tysiąca jednostek frazeologicznych.Z drugiej zaś strony, słownik ma również pewne niedociągnięcia, wśród których należy wymienić: (1) brak określenia kluczowych elementów pojęcia „aktywna” frazeologia; (2) nieuwzględnienie wyrażeń slangowych nienależących do języka literackiego; (3) opis znaczeń frazeologizmów za pomocą prostych struktur syntaktycznych, którym brak spójnych kryteriów jasności i zrozumiałości interpretacyjnej, co sprawia, że słownik nie w pełni uwzględnia potencjał semantyczny i informację pragmatyczną przedstawianych wyrażeń; (4) zbyt kategoryczna interpretacja pojęcia brak ekwiwalencji; (5) nie wszystkie hasła są opatrzone kwalifikatorami stylistycznymi, a lista tych ostatnich ogranicza się jedynie do trzech: slang, potoczne, wulgarne; kwalifikator przysłowie/приказка wydaje się niepoprawny, jako że autorzy nie podają kryteriów, na podstawie których go wyodrębniono; (6) metajęzyk słownika cechuje się pewnymi naruszeniami norm ortograficznych i stylistycznych. Niemniej jednak słownik z pewnością wzbogacił teorię frazeografii i praktykę frazeograficzną, oraz spotkał się z zainteresowaniem ze strony użytkowników.
Reading comprehension is the process of reader’s interaction with a written language and making meaning from the text. Studies show that there is a great difference between skilled and poor readers in terms of using the fundamental strategies of reading comprehension, i.e., cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Due to the lack of appropriate tool for measuring adults’ reading comprehension level in Iran and the lack of appropriate criteria for selecting the texts for such a tool, the aim of this study was to make a placement tool for evaluating adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension level. It was amixed methods study and the aim was to answer three main questions about finding a text selection criterion for reading comprehension tests, using the selected criteria for making reading comprehension placement test and studying the validity and reliability of the devised test. Findings showed that text selection criteria should be fitted with patterns of international tests and the linguistic principles of text. The content validity of the text was approved by experts, after implementing their comments on the texts and questions. To ensure the test reliability and to do item analysis, the test was distributed among a sample of 60 MA students of University of Guilan at two stages. The reliability of the test was computed and Cronbach’s alpha were 0.84 and 0.82 respectively, showing the appropriate reliability of the tool. After normalization, this tool can be used to evaluate adult reading comprehension and in educational planning, it can be used for selecting the educational content. Introduction: Reading comprehension is the process of reader’s interaction with a written language and drawing meaning from the text. Generally, reading comprehension is a complex and multidimensional process which is done through two core processes. The first is decoding the symbols and recognizing the words, and the second is integrating the meaning of words in the context of the text (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; in: Atkinson, 2014). Learning reading comprehension is a long-term process; so it is at the end of the learning process that the adult reader can easily read different texts and draw the meaning from them. Studies show that there is a great difference between skilled and poor readers in terms of using the fundamental strategies of reading comprehension, i.e., cognitive and metacognitive strategies (Cain, Oakhill & Bryant, 2000). Weakness in the prerequisites of reading comprehension and failure in selecting the appropriate comprehension strategies are some of the important problems of students at different educational levels when reading different types of texts. Some international studies have been done on the reading comprehension such as PIRLS[1] and PISA[2] tests. During the recent years, the number of such studies has increased in Iran. Perhaps it could be due to the Iranian students’ low performance in the PIRLS test at different time intervals which shows their weakness in reading comprehension. Despite such weak results in international tests, and doing some related research in Iran, still there is no appropriate tool for determining the reading comprehension of Iranian people, especially adults. Living in the modern society needs learning and reading various texts. Despite the importance of this issue and the quantitative progress in the number of graduate students, there is no specific criterion to determine the educated adults’ level of reading comprehension. The development of higher education is a great scientific evolution that despite its positive effects has some shortcomings as well. One of the most important shortcomings is the lack of an appropriate placement tool for evaluating students’ reading comprehension in order to prepare suitable educational material. The aim of this study was to develop a placement tool for evaluating adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension. The study followed three main objectives, i.e. finding text selection criteria and the related questions for reading comprehension tests, using the selected criteria for developing reading comprehension placement test and finally determining the validity and reliability of the designed test. Questions: There were three main questions in this study: 1. What are the text and question selection criteria for developing a reading comprehension placement test? 2. Which reading comprehension placement test could be designed for adults, implementing the above-mentioned criteria? 3. Does the designed test have validity and reliability? Method: It was amixed methods study.The qualitative part included finding the text and question selection criteria for developing the adult Persian speakers’ reading comprehension placement test and the steps of its development. Also, the quantitative part of the study included the pilot study of the mentioned test to determine its validity and reliability. The content validity of the test was checked by 5 experts. To examine its reliability, the test was distributed among two groups of MA students of the University of Guilan, who were selected using convenience sampling method (each group 30 students) with two months interval and the level of reliability was computed using Cronbach’s alpha. Along with calculation of the reliability of the test, the test items were analyzed in terms of item facility, item discrimination, and the distractors’ distribution. Findings: To select the texts, a combination ofcriteria introduced by the International Institute for the study of Reading Literacy for PIRLS test and Educational Testing Service (ETS) has been used. It was tried to match the selected texts in accordance with patterns of international tests and linguistic characteristics of the texts. These criteria included lexical and grammatical cohesion and also coherence of the texts. Taking into account all of the strategies underlying reading comprehension (i.e., inference-making, comprehension monitoring, text structure, etc.) the test questions were designed at 6 levels. These levels were selected based on the integration of Day and Park (2005) model and the design of TOFEL tests for reading comprehension placement tests. The content validity of the test was approved by 5 linguists, English language teaching, and Persian language teaching experts, after implementing their comments on the texts and questions. To ensure the test reliability, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used. First, the test was distributed among a sample of 30 MA students of University of Guilan and the level of Cronbach’s alpha was 0.82. Also, different levels of item analysis were conducted, including item facility, item discrimination, and the distractors’ distribution. To make sure of the reliability of the test, after revising the items, and with two months interval, the test was distributed among a new sample of 30 MA students of the University of Guilan. Again, the reliability of the test was computed and Cronbach’s alpha was 0.84, showing the appropriate reliability of the tool. Conclusion: This test could be used to assess adult Persian speakers’ level of reading comprehension and also its results could be used to select appropriate educational material. In the next step of this research, this tool should be distributed among a larger sample to determine its construct validity and also to compute its norms so that its results could be cited with more confidence. [1] The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study [2] The Program for International Student Assessment
The article deals with the theoretical investigation of the notion interference of lexical units of the language. The article also analyzes interference, expressed in deviations from the norm and system of the second language under the influence of the native one.
For those looking to deepen their understanding of the letter to the Colossians (and Philemon, in the case of Beale’s commentary), the scholarly choices are looking bright. As the following review will evidence, studies in Colossians are on the rise. Members of the academic world are no strangers to the authors of the following volumes. G. K. Beale holds the J. Gresham Machen chair of New Testament at Westminster Theological Seminary, Glenside, PA; Scot McKnight holds the Julius R. Mantey chair of New Testament at Northern Seminary, Lisle, IL; and Joel White is university lecturer in New Testament at Freie Theologische Hochschule, Giessen, Germany.Given the nature of commentaries and the amount of material being surveyed and reviewed, the following engagement will be somewhat limited in its attention to particulars. Instead, I want to focus on the layout of each commentary and some of the distinctives one can glean from each volume. I will begin with Beale’s commentary because it is the only one of the three that deals with two books. The book begins with the typical introduction of addressing questions concerning authorship, dating, location, occasion, and outline/argument. The exegesis follows a straightforward outline, splitting the letter into four sections: the letter opening (1:1–2), the letter thanksgiving (1:3–23), the letter body (1:24–4:6), and the letter closing (4:7–18). Philemon is analyzed similarly with four major sections: the letter opening (vv. 1–3), the introductory thanksgiving and prayer (vv. 4–7), the letter body (vv. 8–21), and the letter closing (vv. 22–25). The textual analysis is followed by five excurses. These sections address the difficulties of establishing Pauline and non-Pauline authorship, the criteria for discerning OT allusions, interpreting “Christ among the Gentiles,” the OT background of “the uncircumcision of your flesh,” and the master-slave relationship.McKnight’s commentary opens similarly to Beale’s. He addresses authorship, opponents, date and imprisonment, Paul’s theology in Colossians, and the structure of the book. McKnight’s structural analysis concludes that the book is divided into four parts: introduction (1:1–2:5), doctrinal correction (2:6–3:4), practical exhortation (3:5–4:6), and conclusion (4:7–18). One fundamental difference in McKnight’s approach is his preference for non-epistographical designations for each section. As he states, he is less confident of rhetorical conclusions concerning the letter’s message and prefers to split the letter according to the pastoral and theological emphases.White’s commentary also begins with the standard introductory matters as the previous commentaries, with one small difference: he devotes a small section to the textual integrity of the text, which examines the manuscript evidence of Colossians. This section devoted to textual witnesses is helpful for those who want to find this information in one place. The commentary proceeds with its textual analysis. White opts for a threefold structure: introduction (1:1–2:5), letter body/corpus (2:6–4:6), and letter closing (4:7–18). Each of the volumes concludes with extensive bibliographies that have various arrangements but are all equally helpful.The benefits of each volume are as long as the volumes themselves. I will limit my comments to a few advantages of each commentary. Beale’s treatment of the text is less a word-for-word exegesis, and more focus is given to individual thought units (paragraphs) and how they relate to what precedes and what follows. Consider his treatment of Col 1:9–14, where Beale notes the lexical parallels with 1:3–8 and the ensuing literary chiasm (or concentric structuring) between the two sections. If one is familiar with Beale’s other projects, particularly his attention to the OT in the NT, they will recognize the emphasis on OT allusions and their function within Colossians. Beale has placed helpful charts throughout the commentary to illustrate the parallels between passages and their respective antecedents (see the comparison of Col 2:2–3 with Dan 2 [Theod] and Prov 2:3–6 on p. 156). One benefit to those who may not know Greek is Beale’s translations of difficult words/phrases and “additional notes” at the end of structurally pivotal points in the letter. These additional notes give parsing information for difficult Greek terms and their use in the rest of the NT and extracanonical literature. Another interesting feature of Beal’s commentary is his use of the NASB, which is a departure from the norm of the BECNT series.The advantages of McKnight’s commentary align with his differing perspectives on theological frameworks. McKnight begins his theological exploration of Paul not through the lens of soteriology but rather through the lens of the Christological mystery. McKnight argues that Paul’s theology begins with a “missional, ecclesial theology” tied to a given location. In so doing, McKnight highlights how Paul’s writing is concerned with the mission of cosmic reconciliation in forming a group set apart for Christian fellowship (emphasis McKnight’s, p. 50). Another aspect of McKnight’s commentary that is commendable is his handling of prior scholarship. As he notes, some of his teachers and professional predecessors (Harris, Dunn, Moo, Pao, and Campbell) have written commentaries on Colossians. He pays tribute to their work in his introduction and throughout the commentary.The contribution of White’s commentary is its footnotes. White’s primary interlocutors are his fellow Germans. Read side-by-side with the commentaries of Beale and McKnight allows the reader to grasp scholarship from both sides of the Atlantic. White also does not burden the reader with excessive amounts of footnotes. In places where the secondary literature is extensive, White cuts through the burden for the interpreter. Consider the exegesis of Col 1:24. Here, interpreters have been vexed by how properly to understand Paul’s role in completing “what is lacking with regard to the sufferings of the Messiah.” White does his due diligence in explaining the relationship between Paul’s apostolic calling and the Isaianic Servant traditions but in a clear and condensed manner. Beale initially provides eight pages of exegesis followed by three more pages in his “additional notes” section while McKnight provides an exegetical section and a six-page excursus on the topic. Both of these latter interpreters have copious numbers of footnotes for further research. One volume is not necessarily to be preferred, but each volume offers different approaches and attention to the problems of interpreting this verse.In conclusion, each volume can be recommended for its distinctives. The three authors have given us research that models charitable engagement with interlocutors, various grammatical and historical gems, and implementation of new theological frameworks for reading this important letter. While no one will agree with all conclusions, reading the breadth of these commentaries will do well to provide exegetically significant insights for students, pastors, and scholars.
Abstract The current investigation examined the development of second language (L2) intensifier use in spoken Spanish over a 6-week immersion program in Madrid ( n = 45). Native Spanish speakers from Madrid ( n = 10) served as a comparison group to represent the local ambient input or sociopragmatic norm to which L2 learners were exposed. Data were extracted from semi-structured interviews. Results exposed different developmental trends over the program for intensifier frequency, intensifier lexical diversity, and intensifier collocations. While learners already had a strong sense of which intensifiers were most frequent in Spanish and how to use them in appropriate linguistic environments at the beginning of the program, the immersion program had positive impacts on the development of intensifier frequency and intensifier lexical diversity. The findings also highlighted different intensifier frequency developmental trends among learners, which collectively suggested that learners adjusted to the sociopragmatic norm of intensifier use in Madrid over the immersion experience.
In this welcome study of the second-century Apocryphal Acts of Paul and Thecla (ATh for Acts of Thecla), J. D. McLarty is particularly interested in questions of emotion and identity. The exploration of themes such as gender, class, and citizenship is driven by narrative analysis and comparison with one of the five complete Greek novels, Chariton's Callirhoe. Revised from McLarty's 2011 PhD thesis, Thecla's Devotion leads the reader carefully through both ATh and Callirhoe, showing their striking emotive similarities and differences. McLarty argues that, despite being a work of Christian fiction, ATh provides a helpful example of how early ‘Christians in one part of the eastern Empire constructed an identity for themselves’ (p. 232). In Chapter 1, McLarty examines the context of ATh, discussing questions of composition, origin, and date. She accepts the view that the Thecla episode was originally included in the larger narrative of the Acts of Paul but was later disseminated independently with the development of the cult of St. Thecla (already present in the fourth century). It is likely that the text of ATh originated in ‘south central Asia Minor’ (p. 5) and is dated to the ‘mid-to-late second century’ (p. 7). Concerning whether the author of the text was male or female, McLarty concludes, ‘even if one wishes to argue for at least some female contribution to the narrative in the form of oral legend, these contributions have been absorbed into a masculine literary culture’ (p. 9). However, the readers and hearers of the text were likely mixed in both gender and class. Rather than a primarily oral development, McLarty sees the composition as reflecting a ‘predominantly literary milieu’ (p. 17), which both imitated and reworked traditions from the Acts of the Apostles. The world of ATh was a changing one, with a growing interest in the ethics of the individual and self-control. This focus is clearest in relation to discussions of marriage and continence contemporary to ATh. McLarty is, therefore, interested in the intersection of pagan ideas of self-control, reflected in Callirhoe, with a Christian view that contains a distinct ‘spiritual dimension to the control of the passions’ (p. 23). Story, in contrast to pure discourse, provides a unique opportunity to affect the emotions of the reader, but may also provide insight into the author's worldview. This study is broken into two parts. The first part analyses the plot of ATh in comparison to Callirhoe. In Chapter 2, McLarty outlines her methodology, focused especially on the concept of ‘ “affect” – the emotive atmosphere created by the construction of plot’ (p. 28). The next chapter provides a diachronic study through an extended discussion of the plots of Callirhoe (Book 1) and ATh. With both narratives, the points of interest are (1) the teleology of the plot, (2) the loci of tension, (3) and causation. While Callirhoe anticipates a safe return home, ATh ends with all of Thecla's ties to family and home broken, leaving her in ‘a plot space that is without definition’ (p. 89) as she goes about evangelizing. Plot tension presents a challenge to the reader's assumption that all will end well for the protagonists. This tension also provides Thecla with an opportunity to mature through perseverance, a process that culminates in self-baptism. While the concept of ‘Chance’ (τύχη) – sometimes personified as a deity – plays an important role in the causation of Callirhoe, it does not appear in ATh. Instead, God appears in the narrative through deus ex machina (in the theater of Iconium), in order to save the heroine. Human causation in ATh is largely confined to the lack of emotional control, with Paul being the main exception. Chapters 4 and 5 are devoted to a synchronic study, consisting of an analysis of time (Chapter 4), space, and place (Chapter 5). While the author of Callirhoe uses many technical literary features for emotive affect, ATh is often simplified and provides additional moral exhortation. McLarty discusses how the idea of place is subverted in ATh: Tombs and prisons become places of Christian devotion, and the stadium is used for baptism, rather than death. While McLarty claims that ‘Thecla is not portrayed as overturning male authority’ (p. 119), she does transgress boundaries of gender and class. Thecla is found denying her betrothed and, therefore, the civic value of marriage; she roams the streets unaccompanied and ultimately develops into a wandering ‘ “type” of Christian philosopher’ (p. 124). The second part of this study examines character and characterization as the locus of expressed emotion in the narratives. From here, ‘one can therefore glean useful information about the role of emotion in the ATh author's own community’ (p. 132). McLarty proposes a methodology that combines ancient and modern theories of character and compares ATh with Callirhoe as its ‘genre model’ (though she is clear that it is not the only model). Chapters 7 and 8 explore characterization in Callirhoe (Chapter 7) and ATh (Chapter 8), each divided by female and male characters in the narratives. Characters are described in terms of social class and emotional expression, which reveals that, in these narratives, emotion (produced from desire) is reserved mostly for the upper class. Callirhoe also shows the ‘potential destructiveness of uncontrolled masculine emotions’ (p. 166). At times the heroine is depicted as more masculine or ‘warlike’ (p. 167), while the hero is feminized. However, the conclusion of the narrative provides a return home, both physically and emotionally, with both characters fulfilling their culturally defined gender and societal roles. ATh, on the other hand, contrasts and subverts many of these expectations. Although Thecla is understood to be overtaken by passion for Paul, not unlike to the heroine of Callirhoe, it becomes clear to the reader that her true desire is for the gospel he preaches. McLarty concludes that Thecla's character remains that of the ‘perpetual παρθένος [unmarried girl]’ (p. 219). In spite of this, the narrative ends with Thecla reaching maturity through baptism and possessing ‘a masculine control of her emotions’ (p. 219). Again, the contrast with Callirhoe is apparent when the reader understands that Thecla does not return home but remains independent and isolated. This combination of celibacy and isolation subverts many of the second century assumptions about gender and class – namely, that young women (especially of high status) should marry and let their husbands protect them from falling victim to eros (desire). While Paul does not subvert gender norms as such, he does challenge many social categories. ATh portrays Paul as an opponent to the leading men of the city, who are fighting for Thecla's affection. However, ‘Paul does not take part in this contest, an indication that the honour system of the Christian community is different from that of the wider pagan society’ (p. 220). McLarty's final chapter provides a useful summary of emotion and identity in ATh, while also returning to some motifs that she hints at in the beginning of the study. In particular, she discusses the Christian narrative's interaction with pagan philosophy (especially Stoic and Cynic). ATh presents Paul as ‘like a philosopher in his mastery of the passions’ and as a wise man ‘countering the kinds of argument [against Christians] advanced by Celsus’ (p. 227). In contrast to these philosophies, the ‘mastery of the passions’ achieved by both Paul and Thecla comes ‘through Christ’ (p. 232). There is much to admire in McLarty's approach to ATh. Her detailed lexical analysis of both Callirhoe (Book 1) and ATh is sure to provide a useful guide for readers. McLarty also draws from a broad range of classical and Christian texts as comparanda to this apocryphal book. Although she makes a strong case for the predominantly Graeco–Roman background of ATh, one might wonder whether comparison with a Jewish novel like Joseph and Aseneth could further shed light on character and emotion. It is not clear that the bibliography has been fully updated from her 2011 thesis. For example, one will not find interaction with Susan Hylan's A Modest Apostle: Thecla and the History of Women in the Early Church (Oxford: OUP, 2015), who argues that Thecla does not depart from modesty, contrary to what McLarty claims (p. 170). Finally, it is possible that McLarty's emphasis on Thecla's isolation overshadows certain hints at her accumulation of followers. For this reason, McLarty does not mention the ‘band of young men and maidens’ (ATh p. 40), who accompany Thecla in her final return to Paul. This does not negate the overall point about Thecla's subversive character but may indicate some desire in the second century to follow the heroine's example. In the end, McLarty's captivating prose and persuasive arguments ensure that this work is an important contribution to the study of ATh.
Critical Discourse Analysis demystifies power mechanisms operating in different kinds of discourse. It sets forth hidden discourses and meanings for common people. Besides, the current research assignment has studied Bernard Lewis’ essay: The Roots of Muslim Rage using Ruth Wodak’s Discourse Historical Model (2004). Moreover, the researchers have employed purposive sampling as a research design to collect the data. The research is qualitative as it answers the research questions using Wodak’s model. The purpose of this research was to expose hermeneutic interpretations of orientalist discourse that reflect implausible thinking about Muslims. However, much work has been done on discourse of orientalism, yet from Wodak’s point of view much work is to be done; hence, the current research paper has also contributed to the field of critical discourse analysis. The subjectification of the Muslims through oriental norms is the main theme in Lewis’ essay as revealed by analysing lexical and syntactic units. Thus, the current research has concluded the findings in accordance with the research questions and research objectives.
Language production ultimately aims to convey meaning. Yet words differ widely in the richness and density of their semantic representations, and these differences impact conceptual and lexical processes during speech planning. Here, we replicated the recent finding that semantic richness, measured as the number of associated semantic features according to semantic feature production norms, facilitates object naming. In contrast, intercorrelational semantic feature density, measured as the degree of intercorrelation of a concept's features, presumably resulting in the coactivation of closely related concepts, has an inhibitory influence. We replicated the behavioral effects and investigated their relative time course and electrophysiological correlates. Both the facilitatory effect of high semantic richness and the inhibitory influence of high feature density were reflected in an increased posterior positivity starting at about 250 ms, in line with previous reports of posterior positivities in paradigms employing contextual manipulations to induce semantic interference during language production. Furthermore, amplitudes at the same posterior electrode sites were positively correlated with object naming times between about 230 and 380 ms. The observed effects follow naturally from the assumption of conceptual facilitation and simultaneous lexical competition and are difficult to explain by language production theories dismissing lexical competition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Este trabalho objetiva analisar o vocabulario documentado pelo Projeto Atlas Linguistico do Brasil (ALiB), especificamente as ocorrencias em Mato Grosso do Sul das variantes lexicais que nomeiam o referente geralmente conhecido como boteco – QSL 202/ALiB (COMITE NACIONAL DO PROJETO ALiB, 2002, p. 37), area semântica Vida urbana, enunciadas por 28 informantes entrevistados pelos pesquisadores do Atlas Linguistico do Brasil (ALiB), habitantes de seis pontos de inquerito sul-mato-grossenses. Tratando-se de pesquisa descritiva com base em dados empiricos, o estudo tem como base teorica a Dialetologia e a Geolinguistica (FERREIRA; CARDOSO, 1994; ISQUERDO, 2003), bem como principios da Sociolinguistica (CAMACHO, 2001). Por meio da analise do corpus, os resultados finais obtidos mostraram o registro de 7 variantes lexicais para nomear o boteco, sendo que a de maior incidencia foi de boteco/botequinho/botiquim, com 44% das ocorrencias, seguida por bar, 30%, e na sequencia vem bolicho, com 10% dos registros. A maior variacao lexical ocorreu na capital, Campo Grande, com sete variantes, tambem unico ambiente em que se observou o item lexical emporio. Nota-se tambem que boteco/botequinho nao aparece como o de maior incidencia na capital e em Ponta Pora, locais em que se destaca bar (38% e 50% de produtividade, respectivamente). Ja uma menor variacao encontra-se na cidade de Paranaiba – com apenas duas unidades lexicas registradas – boteco/botequinho/botiquim e bar. Diante do exposto, pode-se concluir que, com os resultados obtidos e analisados, o estudo apresentado pode contribuir para as pesquisas dialetais, pois, a partir de dados geolinguisticos, analisou os nomes para boteco em Mato Grosso do Sul, ratificando a importância dos estudos lexicais para o conhecimento da norma linguistica de uma sociedade e sua intrinseca relacao com a historia e a cultura. ABSTRACT: This work aims to analyze the vocabulary documented by the Atlas Linguistic of Brazil Project (ALiB), specifically the occurrences in Mato Grosso do Sul of the lexical variants that name the referent generally known as boteco (bar) - QSL 202 / ALiB (NATIONAL COMMITTEE OF PROJECT ALiB, 2002, p. 37), semantic area Urban life, enunciated by 28 informants interviewed by researchers from the Linguistic Atlas of Brazil (ALiB), inhabitants of six survey points in that state. In the case of descriptive research based on empirical data, the study is theoretically based on Dialectology and Geolinguistics (FERREIRA; CARDOSO, 1994; ISQUERDO, 2003), as well as principles of Sociolinguistics (CAMACHO, 2001). Through the analysis of the corpus, the final results obtained showed the registration of 7 lexical variants to name the bar, with the highest incidence being boteco/botequinho/botiquim, with 44% of occurrences, followed by bar, 30%, and in the sequence comes bolicho, with 10% of the records. The largest lexical variation occurred in the capital, Campo Grande, with seven variants, also the only environment in which the lexical item emporio was observed. It should also be noted that boteco/botequinho does not appear as the one with the highest incidence in the capital and in Ponta Pora, places where bar stands out (38% and 50% of productivity, respectively). A smaller variation is found in the city of Paranaiba - with only two lexical units registered - boteco/botequinho/botiquim and bar. Given the above, it can be concluded that, with the results obtained and analyzed, the study presented can contribute to dialect research, since, using geolinguistic data, it analyzed the names for bar in Mato Grosso do Sul, ratifying the importance of lexical studies for the knowledge of the linguistic norm of a society and its intrinsic relationship with history and culture. KEYWORDS: Lexical norm; Mato Grosso do Sul; Atlas Linguistic of Brazil Project; bar.
Abstract The aims of this paper are to analyse differences in the degree of lexical variation (type/token ratio and hapax/token ratio) of reporting verbs in reporting clauses placed medially or in postposition in English, French and Czech fiction and to evaluate their consequences in translation, especially in regard to explicitation/implicitation. We expect that, in translations from a language with a low degree of lexical variation of reporting verbs into a language with a high degree of lexical variation, the frequency and the degree of explicitation will be higher than in translations involving languages less different with respect to lexical variation. The analysis, relying on data extracted from the InterCorp multilingual corpus, proposes a classification of reporting verbs based on the type and amount of information conveyed, which allows evaluating the degree of explicitation operated in translations. The results show that most shifts involve only the neutral reporting verb say/dire, replaced by a stylistically more specific synonym or by a verb explicitating information obvious from the context. This suggests that modifications of reporting verbs in translation are motivated primarily by respect for the stylistic norm of the target language and the degree of acceptability of the repetition of the neutral reporting verb.
Background and aims: Extant research indicates that children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) without an intellectual disability (ID) often experience difficulty comprehending written texts that is unexpected in comparison with their cognitive abilities. This study investigated the development of two key skills, narrative and inference abilities, that support higher level text comprehension and their relation to lexical-semantic knowledge, ASD symptomatology, and age. Three questions were addressed: 1.) What was the nature of narrative and inference skill development over time? 2.) What was the relation between narrative or inference development and lexical-semantic knowledge, ASD symptomatology, and age? 3.) Did initial narrative and inferencing skills, and the development of these skills, predict reading comprehension outcomes? Methods: Data from 81 children and adolescents with ASD without ID (FIQ ≥ 75) between the ages of 8-16-years-old at timepoint 1 were collected at 15-month intervals across three timepoints. ASD symptomatology was assessed with the ADOS-2. Standardized narrative retelling, inference, reading comprehension, lexical-semantic knowledge and cognitive assessments were administered. Latent growth curve models were conducted to examine narrative and inference skill development, and conditional growth models were fit to examine the relation between growth trajectories and covariates (lexical-semantic knowledge, ASD symptomatology, age) as well as with the reading comprehension distal outcome. Results: Narrative retelling skills followed a linear trajectory of growth and were a relative strength in this sample, while inference skills were well below average and declined over time relative to age-normed standard scores. Lexical-semantic knowledge explained significant heterogeneity in initial narrative and inference skills, whereas ASD symptomatology was only related to initial narrative retelling abilities and age was only related to initial inference abilities. Timepoint 3 reading comprehension skill (in the below average range) was significantly explained by initial narrative retelling and inference abilities. Conclusions: These findings suggest that narrative and inference skills, in addition to lexical-semantic knowledge, are important to target beginning in elementary grades to improve reading comprehension outcomes for children and adolescents with ASD without ID.
In his paper "The Influence of Normative Reasons on the Formation of Legal Concepts", German legal philosopher Lorenz Kähler offers a very interesting approach to normativity for the Russian theory and philosophy of law. L. Kähler, considering various normative reasons that influence on the formation of legal concepts, puts forward original and sometimes unexpected conclusions. On the one hand, this can be attributed to the peculiarities of his writing style, but on the other hand, it sometimes seems that he deliberately provokes the reader to questions, involving him in a discussion. In L. Kähler’s approach, there are at least two arguments that require serious clarification and discussion. First, the fact that all the concepts used in legal norms are legal, and, secondly, that the legislator can use lexical, stipulative and real definitions to disclose a content of these concepts. The counterarguments and criticisms offered in this article are based on the statements that the definition is one of the ways of forming legal concepts, and that the question of what is meant by concepts is closely related to the question of which definitions the legislator can use. This led to the following conclusions. First, that in the formulation of legal norms, non-legal concepts, legal concepts and concepts of the law can be used, and this use does not entail that all these concepts become legal. Second, that three types of definitions (lexical, stipulative, and real) are clearly not enough to define these concepts. Moreover, not all of these definitions can be effective and productive, and only some of them are normative in nature. Therefore, it is necessary either to expand the list of definitions, or to significantly modify them in accordance with the specifics of the field of application.
The article discusses the types of homonyms in the Karakalpak language and their characteristics. Lexical homonyms, lexical-grammatical homonyms and mixed homonyms are briefly explained with the help of examples. Our language has the same sound structure and pronunciation, but also completely different types in terms of meaning and form. Such a group of words serves only a certain norm of homonymy, but in the second form it does not have a homonymous function. Finally, in our language we call such homonymous phenomena grammatical homonyms.
From the point of view of linguistics, mass media play an important role in studies of the language, since, on the one hand, they are a rich source of language material and data, and on the other hand, the language used by mass media does not comply with the current norms of the literary language. Studying and explaining various linguistic phenomena adds to development of efficient language teaching methods. All this determines the topicality of the research. The newspaper article headline is considered its most significant element, and thus, its wording is to be aimed at attracting the target readers attention, making them interested, and encouraging them to read the whole article. Therefore, the authors choose to focus this study on online newspaper headlines, their linguistic and structural features, particularly, phonetic alliteration, transformation of lexical units, elliptical structures, grammatical means and word order, as well as stylistic devices, which help to strengthen emotional impact on the reader. The outcome of the study shows that newspaper headlines feature more mobile and flexible language structures than the standard language, and do not comply with the linguistic norms and rules of word order.
COVID-19 has hit hard on the global community, and organizations are working diligently to cope with the new norm of "work from home". However, the volume of remote work is unprecedented and creates opportunities for cyber attackers to penetrate home computers. Attackers have been leveraging websites with COVID-19 related names, dubbed COVID-19 themed malicious websites. These websites mostly contain false information, fake forms, fraudulent payments, scams, or malicious payloads to steal sensitive information or infect victims' computers. In this paper, we present a data-driven study on characterizing and detecting COVID-19 themed malicious websites. Our characterization study shows that attackers are agile and are deceptively crafty in designing geolocation targeted websites, often leveraging popular domain registrars and top-level domains. Our detection study shows that the Random Forest classifier can detect COVID-19 themed malicious websites based on the lexical and WHOIS features defined in this paper, achieving a 98% accuracy and 2.7% false-positive rate.
The research work attempts to investigate that in any geographical contact zone, where the diverse languages and cultures intersect, there would inevitably be linguistic and cultural integration and assimilation. In a similar vein, the worldwide dissemination of the English language has radically shaped the linguistic and textual devices installed by the Saudi English writers in their texts. Besides, the Saudi English writers have reconstructed L2 (English) on the linguistic pattern of L1(Arabic) to foreground their distinctive ideological and cultural norms. Also, the research work investigates, can Saudi English be considered an authentic linguistic instrument? The researcher also has focused and authenticated on the emergence of Saudi English regarding the innovative linguistic and textual tactics inducted by the Saudi writers in their texts. Besides, the research study has investigated the reconstruction of L2 (English) on the lexical, rhetorical, and grammatical patterns of L1(Arabic). The research work also has a great significance regarding the pedagogical, and theoretical linguistic debate about the emergence of the Asian and African variants of Englishes. Likewise, the researcher has chosen the appropriating linguistic theory, and multiple canons approach as a theoretical framework to analyze the selected Saudi English texts. The research work also has concluded that the Saudi English has emerged as a practical linguistic instrument like any other Asian variants of Englishes. Consequently, the researcher has suggested to the Saudi English writers to reconstruct L2 (English) as a functional instrument to disseminate their national, ideological, and cultural norms for global readers.
The material of the article, according to the author, gives reason to believe that the well-known modern linguistic processes, which are perceived as harmful and destructive (and have been characterized as damage, destruction, impoverishment, degradation and even deathof the Russian language for 30 years), occur on the periphery lexical system without affecting its core. The lexical core, in terms of conceptualization of the world, corresponding to the center of the linguistic picture of the world, remains stable and comprises the linguistic standard that is based on linguistic traditions and norms.
В данной статье проведен этнолингвистический анализ 53 наименований ягодных растений в якутском языке с целью определения их способов образования. Языковой материал был взят из различных лексикографических источников, в том числе ботанических словарей. Эмпирической базой исследования послужили также полевые и экспедиционные наблюдения, диалектные записи и материалы, собранные авторами с 2017 г. в различных районах Республики Саха (Якутия). С целью определения лексического значения корней анализируемых наименований приведены семантические описания лексем из «Большого толкового словаря якутского языка», «Словаря якутского языка» Э. К. Пекарского. Для выявления способов образования фитонимов использованы методы словообразовательного анализа: поиск производящей основы, выделение словообразовательного форманта, установление принципов словообразования. Также применены элементы семантического и морфологического анализа наименований, рассмотрены синтаксические конструкции сложных слов (словосочетаний). Непроизводным лексическим единицам даны этимологические характеристики, в некоторых случаях приведены параллели из других языков. Заимствованные названия ягодных растений проанализированы с точки зрения фонетических изменений, такой же принцип анализа использован относительно диалектных единиц, перешедших в литературную норму. Кроме того, некоторые якутские основы и рефлексы в других родственных языках сравнены в фоноструктурном аспекте. Путем описательного метода даны биологические характеристики растений, также приведены объяснения географическим особенностям мест произрастания исследуемых ягодных растений. Установлено, что основным способом номинации фитонимов, обозначающих наименования ягодных растений в якутском языке, является номинация по признаку, в основе которой лежит ряд мотивационных характеристик. Удалось выяснить, что данный принцип основывается на ассоциативной метафоризации, которая раскрывает отношение якутов к живой природе и отражает особенность мировоззрения народа саха. Наличие заимствований из русского языка объясняется общей территорией проживания якутов и русских. Фитонимы монгольского и тунгусо-маньчжурского происхождения свидетельствует о тесных языковых контактах якутов с монгольскими племенами и тунгусо-маньчжурскими народами, в частности эвенками. In this article, an ethnolinguistic analysis of 53 names of berry plants in the Yakut language was carried out to determine their methods of formation. Language material was taken by their various lexicographic sources, including botanical dictionaries. The empirical basis of the study was also field and expeditionary observations, dialect records and materials collected by the authors since 2017 in various regions of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). To determine the lexical value of the roots of the analyzed names, semantic descriptions of lexemes are given from the «Great Thick Dictionary of the Yakut Language» and the «Dictionary of the Yakut Language» by E. K. Pekarskiy. Methods of word-formation analysis are used to identify methods of phytonym formation: search of producing base, extraction of word-formation formant, the establishment of word formation principles. Elements of semantic and morphological analysis of nominations are also used, syntax constructions of complex words (phrases) are considered. Non-derivative lexical units are given etymological characteristics, in some cases, parallels from other languages are given. Borrowed names of berry plants are analyzed in terms of phonetic changes, the same principle of analysis is used relative to dialect units that have converted to the literary norm. Besides, some Yakut bases and reflexes in other related languages are compared in the phonostructural aspect. Biological characteristics of plants are given through descriptive method, as well as explanations of geographical peculiarities of places of growth of studied berry plants are given. It has been established that the main method of nomination of phytonyms, which denote names of berry plants in the Yakut language, his nomination based on several motivational characteristics. It was possible to find out that this principle is based on associative metaphorization, which reveals the attitude of Yakuts to wildlife and reflects the characteristics of the world view of the Sakha people. The availability of borrowing from the Russian language is explained by the general territory of residence of Yakuts and Russians. Phytonyms of Mongolian and Tunguso-Manchurian origins indicate close linguistic contacts of Yakuts with Mongolian tribes and Tunguso-Manchurian peoples, particularly Evens.
The article discusses the possibility of using author’s dictionaries as sources for replenishing the general language explanatory dictionary of the Ukrainian language. By the beginning of the 20th century, Ukrainian author’s lexicography acquired clear features of a separate vocabulary direction. Index words, concordances, complete and differential dictionaries, monolingual and bilingual have been published. In addition to dictionaries in a book format, electronic dictionaries, online dictionaries are now being created. Оne of the tasks of the writer’s dictionary is to describe the individual characteristics of the author’s language, in a broader sense, to popularize the linguistic personality. On the other hand, the material from the author’s dictionary serves as a factual basis for updating the register, semantic, stylistic characteristics, illustrative material of general language explanatory dictionaries. A number of researchers emphasize the need for a close relationship between explanatory lexicography and the author’s one for the successful development of national vocabulary work. “Dictionary of the language in Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko’s works” in 3 volumes occupies a special place among the author’s dictionaries for such characteristics as structure, volume. It includes all words, phraseology contained in a six-volume edition of the writer’s works, in other publications, in archival works. Kvitka-Osnovianenko is the founder of the prose genre in Ukrainian literature. As evidenced by the materials of the “Dictionary of the Ukrainian language” in 11 vol., its compilers turned to Kvitka-Osnovianenko’s works to fill in the vocabulary zones. Nevertheless, the materials of the “Dictionary of the language in Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovianenko’s works” contain language units that may be of interest to compilers of large explanatory dictionaries. These are deminitives that are characteristic of the language of many genres of Ukrainian literature, as well as phraseological units. An example of the author’s non-fiction lexicography is the dictionary of the language of the publicist I.M. Dziuba, which is currently being developed. In Soviet times, the works of a well-known literary critic and publicist were not used as literary sources for the selection of words or illustrative material in explanatory lexicography. The materials of the language dictionary of I.M. Dziuba represent a significant resource for replenishing the vocabulary of the explanatory dictionary, for filling in the structural zones of the dictionary entry. The presented specific examples of word usage by the two authors correspond to lexical, word-formation norms. Further scientific and lexicological study of such linguistic facts will show the possibility of their involvement in explanatory lexicography. Keywords: author’s lexicography, general language explanatory dictionary, vocabulary register, H.F. Kvitka-Osnovianenko, language of works by I.M. Dziuba.
This article is devoted to the development of a linguistic model for describing the concept WOMAN. The material is women’s dialect discourse. The sources of the material are the Tomsk dialect corpus which includes materials of expeditions organized by dialectologists of Tomsk State University from 1946 to the present days on the territory of Middle Ob dialects spread. In the article we used modeling method based on the idea of the nominative field of a concept, as well as an interpretation technique relying on analysis of contexts, and a method of quantitative calculations used in relation to units that represent the concept. Lexical and phraseological units that make up the nominative field of the concept were revealed during the research. These units were divided into the following lexical-semantic groups: 1) the general nominations of a female person; 2) age and status in marriage; 4) status in the family hierarchy; 5) anatomical and biological characteristics; 6) character traits and behavior; 7) appearance characteristics; 8) profession and work processes. Elements of different layers of the concept are revealed in each lexical- semantic group. All of them give a general picture of ideas about women. So, the basis for identifying of gender conceptualizations and stereotypes is the presence of linguistic oppositions of male and female; the presence of a large number of lexical units that reflect the status of marriage (girl, bride, young woman, wife, mistress, old woman, widow, old girl, brooch and so on); lexical pairs that are opposed to each other on the basis of evaluation “positive” – “negative” (clean, clean – dirty, mistress – disheveled, etc.). A large number of words that negatively assess certain qualities and behavior of women (gossip girl, market woman, stramovka, etc.) indicate the high requirements imposed on the woman, the condemnation of deviations from social norms. The content of the concept of WOMAN depends on the specifics of rural existence, which is based on work, the presence of patriarchal gender stereotypes, social and historical events and processes. The significance of the research is determined by the possibility of using its results for development of a new interdisciplinary scientific field – gender dialectology that studies the gender characteristics of the dialect.
Being a completely new communicative environment, the internet network generates new designations (including verbal) for several phenomena. Among them, there are blended nonce-words that are on the verge of norms violation. A number of these lexical units, which should be considered as a demonstration of linguistic personality creative potential, are related to the stock vocabulary of native twenty-first century Russian-language speakers. This phenomenon occurs various languages and different cultures. Therefore the article dwells upon blended neologisms, including native Russian and borrowed elements. The predominant role of situation and context in that pattern is obvious: those nonce-words have not been fixed in lexical system yet. Contaminants should be treated as an evidence of sustainable development of the whole language system, as a component of various discourses as well as integral part of everyday communication (via the internet network), and slang. Non-standard structure as well as combination of native and borrowed elements in blended nonce-words, provide them with strong emotive and expressive potential. Keywords: blended nonce-words, Internet communication, word building, borrowing
This article discusses features of the implementation of linguistic norms in international treaties.The proposed study has a purpose to identify linguistic means present in international document texts, i.e. treaties that are to fix the agreement that parties achieve with a view to establishing relations and regulating them in future. The research material is 1000 texts of international treaties. The total amount of factual material analyzed is over 6000 pages. Our methodology is based on the works by domestic and foreign authors on general theory of speech activity, laws of perception and understanding of speech, and the peculiarities of the generation of a statement, translation theory, and international law. One of the most important means of expressing information in a text is its lexical composition. International treaties texts comprise different types of vocabulary (common, terminological, specialized, etc.) that performs text- and style forming functions. From the point of view of grammar, compiling international treaties involves using particular grammatical forms and categories, syntactic structures and types of phrases. The essence of international treaties texts implies the presence of special clichs of a business style. In the preparation and editing of international treaties, the adequate use of appropriate vocabulary and grammatical means leads to a reduction of ambiguities and discrepancies in the texts of these documents.
Difficulties in describing such notions as vernacular, common slang and slang and the reference of certain lexical units or texts to a particular language phenomenon stem from the variety of opinions and ways of defining each of them. These debatable questions have become more distinctive in Russian linguistics with the growing contacts with European linguistic schools and therefore copying the terms without adapting them to Russian theory of language. The using of these terms is becoming chaotic due to the fact that modern Russian linguistics often neglects the basic achievements of Soviet linguistics in the field of distinguishing language varieties. The article considers two approaches to the definition of vernacular, common slang and slang: from the point of view of their being fully functional language varieties and from the point of view of their functional facilities. As a result of the analysis of the data about language varieties, a conclusion is drawn about the common and different in these concepts. If these notions considered as similar to major language varieties such as standard language, standard colloquial speech and territorial dialects, then they cannot be called fully functional language varieties, since they have an extremely vague social base, they are characterized by a low degree of standardization, functional diversity and the intersection of their lexical content. Thus, it can be concluded that such language phenomena belong to the specific kind of language variations that are defined by their transitional nature. If functional facility of vernacular, common slang and slang is considered, it is worth noting that there are a lot of stylistically marked lexical units in slang. They are slightly less numerous in vernacular, and even less numerous in common slang. This peculiarity stems from the fact that common slang includes lexical units able to function as the fillers of the gaps in standard language, standard colloquial speech or territorial dialects. It should be noted that the lexical units of all three language phenomena are used in various communication situations even by the people who are well versed in the norms of the standard language. The fact that lexical units belong to vernacular, common slang or slang does not prevent well-educated speakers from using all stylistic functions of such units. Speakers who know the difference between standard and slang or vernacular words are able to vary these language tools to attract the attention of a certain category of people (for example, for advertising, communicating with youth, etc.).
This paper presents a multilingual legal information retrieval system for mapping recitals to articles in European Union (EU) directives and normative provisions in national legislation. Such a system could be useful for purposive interpretation of norms. A previous work on mapping recitals and normative provisions was limited to EU legislation in English and only one lexical text similarity technique. In this paper, we develop state-of-the-art text similarity models to investigate the interplay between directive recitals, directive (sub-)articles and provisions of national implementing measures (NIMs) on a multilingual corpus (from Ireland, Italy and Luxembourg). Our results indicate that directive recitals do not have a direct influence on NIM provisions, but they sometimes contain additional information that is not present in the transposed directive sub-article, and can therefore facilitate purposive interpretation.
The Neural Machine-Parsed IcePaHC is a machine-parsed treebank which consists of Icelandic texts from the 13th to 20th century, mostly Icelandic sagas. The texts were parsed using the IceNeuralParsingPipeline, a parsing pipeline which includes an Icelandic model of the Berkeley Neural Parser along with pre- and postprocessing steps. The parser was trained on IcePaHC and the parsing scheme of the treebank is therefore the same, although the treebank does not include empty phrases or lemmas. The treebank includes 52 texts. The total word count is 1,716,429 and the total number of clauses is 167,815.
Many NLP applications, such as biomedical data and technical support, have\n10-100 million tokens of in-domain data and limited computational resources for\nlearning from it. How should we train a language model in this scenario? Most\nlanguage modeling research considers either a small dataset with a closed\nvocabulary (like the standard 1 million token Penn Treebank), or the whole web\nwith byte-pair encoding. We show that for our target setting in English,\ninitialising and freezing input embeddings using in-domain data can improve\nlanguage model performance by providing a useful representation of rare words,\nand this pattern holds across several different domains. In the process, we\nshow that the standard convention of tying input and output embeddings does not\nimprove perplexity when initializing with embeddings trained on in-domain data.\n
‘Feeling fat’ refers to the subjective experience of carrying excess weight and relates to severity of eating pathology. Despite research suggesting that ‘feeling fat’ fluctuates across contexts, this construct is almost exclusively assessed in terms of frequency or as a trait. Examining state ‘feeling fat’ in response to external stimuli can inform us of the nature of this construct. In an experimental study, 290 community women were exposed to five categories of affective (pleasant, aversive, and neutral) and body (thin and non-thin) images in quasi-random order. Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) valence and arousal rating scales as well as a novel SAM ‘feeling fat’ scale were rated for each image. Theoretically-relevant constructs (i.e., trait ‘feeling fat’, thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, eating pathology) were also measured. Body images elicited greater state ‘feeling fat’ than affective images, with images of non-thin bodies producing higher state ‘feeling fat’ than thin bodies. Positive correlations were observed between state ‘feeling fat’ in response to thin and all variables of interest, whereas associations between these variables and ‘feeling fat’ in response to non-thin images were small or non-significant. The development of a state measure of ‘feeling fat’ allows for the investigation of triggers of this bodily experience and will facilitate future research.
The article deals with semantic and motivational features, an attempt is made to classify pharmacy names in Chernivtsi. The aim of re- search is to study the names of pharmacies in Chernivtsi as an important component of ergonomics in the onomastic view of the city. Research methods are predetermined by its goals and objecti- ves. The following methods are used in the work: descriptive, anal- ytical, semantic-motivational, component analysis, classification, elements of statistical and method of quantitative calculations. The topicality of the article is determined by the need to study the names of pharmacies in Chernivtsi as an important component of ergonomics throughout the city's onomastic. The scientific novelty of the work is that for the first time the names of pharmacies in Chernivtsi were analyzed as part of the ergonomic picture of the city in terms of semantics, motivation, structure, adherence to linguistic norms in the modern chronologi- cal section. Conclusions. Eight main semantic-motivational groups of pharmacists have been identified, the names of pharmacies have been analyzed in terms of the specifics of their formation and func- tioning, semantic analysis, systematization, motivation, nomina- tion, compliance with language norms. Further perspectives of the study can be seen in the complex study of pharmaconyms and find- ing out their place in the entire ergonomics of the city.
The study investigates the rule of spelling the root -ravn-/-rovn- and is considered to be a fragment of the academic description of Russian spelling, which is currently being under investigation at the Russian Language Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The authors clarify the meanings that determine the spelling of the unstressed root, supplement the lists of exceptions, denote words with meanings not corresponding to the given values-criteria, and, for the first time in linguistics, investigate the words that can be correlated with different values-criteria, that is, they have double motivation. The rule codifies the spelling of words that have double motivation and fluctuate in usus, dictionaries, study guides and reference books. Spelling recommendations for these words correspond to the current linguistic norm and were approved by the Spelling Commission of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2019. The linguistic commentary to the rule contains the most significant etymological facts concerning the root -ravn-/-rovn- and summarises the scientific and methodological attempts to figure out the distribution of vocabulary with root -ravn-/-rovn- based on the meanings selected in the spelling rules. In the paper it is shown that the instability in spelling of various verbs with the root -ravn-/-rovn- in modern writing and dictionaries is determined by the double motivation of words, as well as contradictory recommendations and gaps in the rules.
We propose a novel constituency parsing model that casts the parsing problem into a series of pointing tasks. Specifically, our model estimates the likelihood of a span being a legitimate tree constituent via the pointing score corresponding to the boundary words of the span. Our parsing model supports efficient top-down decoding and our learning objective is able to enforce structural consistency without resorting to the expensive CKY inference. The experiments on the standard English Penn Treebank parsing task show that our method achieves 92.78 F1 without using pre-trained models, which is higher than all the existing methods with similar time complexity. Using pre-trained BERT, our model achieves 95.48 F1, which is competitive with the state-of-the-art while being faster. Our approach also establishes new state-of-the-art in Basque and Swedish in the SPMRL shared tasks on multilingual constituency parsing.
Objectives. The article deals with semantic and motivational features, an attempt is made to classify pharmacy names in Chernivtsi. The aim of research is to study the names of pharmacies in Chernivtsi as an important component of ergonomics in the onomastic view of the city. Research methods are predetermined by its goals and objectives. The following methods are used in the work: descriptive, analytical, semantic-motivational, component analysis, classification, elements of statistical and method of quantitative calculations. The topicality of the article is determined by the need to study the names of pharmacies in Chernivtsi as an important component of ergonomics throughout the city's onomastic. The scientific novelty of the work is that for the first time the names of pharmacies in Chernivtsi were analyzed as part of the ergonomic picture of the city in terms of semantics, motivation, structure, adherence to linguistic norms in the modern chronological section. Conclusions. Eight main semantic-motivational groups of pharmacists have been identified, the names of pharmacies have been analyzed in terms of the specifics of their formation and functioning, semantic analysis, systematization, motivation, nomination, compliance with language norms. Further perspectives of the study can be seen in the complex study of pharmaconyms and finding out their place in the entire ergonomics of the city.
The UD framework defines guidelines for a crosslingual syntactic analysis in the framework of dependency grammar, with the aim of providing a consistent treatment across languages that not only supports multilingual NLP applications but also facilitates typological studies. Until now, the UD framework has mostly focussed on bilexical grammatical relations. In the paper, we propose to add a constructional perspective and discuss several examples of spoken-language constructions that occur in multiple languages and challenge the current use of basic and enhanced UD relations. The examples include cases where the surface relations are deceptive, and syntactic amalgams that either involve unconnected subtrees or structures with multiply-headed dependents. We argue that a unified treatment of constructions across languages will increase the consistency of the UD annotations and thus the quality of the treebanks for linguistic analysis.
Though the correction of writing expression is necessary to learn a second language, ils efficiency can be questioned. In practice, teachers'corrections differ with each other due to its flexible definition. Most students don't learn from their essays and reproduce the same mistakes when correction is not tactically considered. Strategies have been advised by reseachers for a more efficient correction. However, do ther actually allow pupils to memorize linguistic norms and not to reiterate the same mistakes, integrating the correction in the revision phase? In an attempt to answer such a question, a guided self-correction that has been strategically prepared before having been implemented in class is tackled in this report. Also, the pupils have been surveyed before the experiment. The expected outcome is that the more the students correct their wrintings autonomously, the less the mistakes that they did in their intermediate task reappear in their final task. The learners who corrected their mistakes in autonomy would have better understood them. Hence, they would pay more attention to the corrections of their essays, integrating them in their revisions from now on. Nevertheless, these strategies would not be beneficial for every learner.
O presente artigo, resultante da pesquisa de mestrado, apresenta a extração automatizada de palavras-chaves da tragédia grega Héracles, de Eurípides, associada à anotação morfossintática em árvore (treebanking) com a finalidade de determinar temas e aspectos formais da obra. Dessa forma, primeiramente Héracles fora comparada estatisticamente com as outras dezoito obras de Eurípides, sem lematização. Posteriormente, foram selecionados trechos contendo as palavras-chaves com a finalidade de analisá-las morfossintaticamente em árvore. Desse modo, os resultados evidenciaram quatro temas centrais na tragédia como os personagens, os laços familiares, a caracterização de Héracles por meio de suas armas e trabalhos, e, por fim, sua loucura.
Many NLP applications, such as biomedical data and technical support, have 10-100 million tokens of in-domain data and limited computational resources for learning from it. How should we train a language model in this scenario? Most language modeling research considers either a small dataset with a closed vocabulary (like the standard 1 million token Penn Treebank), or the whole web with bytepair encoding. We show that for our target setting in English, initialising and freezing input embeddings using in-domain data can improve language model performance by providing a useful representation of rare words, and this pattern holds across several different domains. In the process, we show that the standard convention of tying input and output embeddings does not improve perplexity when initializing with embeddings trained on in-domain data.
Olfactory research in humans has largely focused on odors perceived via sniffing, orthonasal olfaction, while ignoring odors perceived from the mouth, retronasal olfaction. Prior work on retronasally presented odors use animal models and focus mainly on odor sensitivity, but little is known about retronasal olfactory perception and cognition in humans. In this study, we compared orthonasal and retronasal odor presentation routes to investigate differences in odor descriptions and evaluations. Thirty-six individuals participated in a within-subjects study using twelve odors (varying in pleasantness and edibility) in perceptual and semantic tasks. As expected, we found route-dependent differences in perceptual odor quality (pleasantness, edibility, and familiarity ratings), and a better ability to identify odors during orthonasal presentation. Additionally, more concrete (and source-based) language was used when describing odors presented orthonasally. Exploratory analyses revealed that while orthonasal odors were described with words that had visual associations, retronasal odors were described with words that had interoceptive associations. Interestingly, these route-dependent differences in descriptor usage were not explained by sensitivity and intensity differences, suggesting cognitive and linguistic processes differed between odors presented orthonasally and retronasally. Our results indicate that olfaction is in fact a dual sense, in which the routes change the perception of an odor.
This article is an investigation of teachers’ corrections and comments on graduation essays from the 1870s. Our aim is to learn more about the linguistic norms in Swedish secondary schools at the time, such as they appear in this specific context. The study is based on 13 graduation essays (in total 7,184 words) from one secondary school (Högre Allmänna Läroverket i Falun). There are 532 corrections and comments in the texts, corresponding to an average of 7.4 corrections/comments per 100 words. Corrections and comments are thus very common in the texts that we have investigated. Many of the corrections focus on textual details, such as the choice of words and sentence structure, but by no means are all of the corrections due to incorrect language use. Rather, it seems that many of the corrections target the style of essays. Corrections or comments concerning the structure of the texts are very rare. Most of the comments made by teachers are in the category called focusing, i.e. co-appearing with a correction in the text. None of the essays contain positive feedback from the teacher, which we believe could be significant for the correction norm at the time.
Previous studies have repeatedly demonstrated the attentional prioritization of emotional information over neutral information. However, the parsing of interference from negative and positive stimuli has not received the same attention. In the study reported here, we examined the effect of real-world visual scenes of neutral, positive, and negative valence, as well as the effect of both high-and low-arousal (differentially categorized based on their arousal and valence ratings) on scene gist identification. Using a partial-report paradigm, participants were asked to report the gist of a post-cued scene from a briefly-presented array of four scenes. Scene gist identification performance was significantly higher for positive scenes, regardless of arousal, than for negative scenes. All emotional scenes, regardless of valence and arousal, interfered with reporting the gist of neutral scenes. The findings support the hypothesis that emotional scenes more often interfere with processing of neutral scenes and are selectively attended to during briefly-presented scene arrays. Moreover, the results suggest that the identification and the interference of positive, higharousal scenes are prioritized in visual information processing.
This package contains data used in the IWPT 2020 shared task. It contains training, development and test (evaluation) datasets. The data is based on a subset of Universal Dependencies release 2.5 (http://hdl.handle.net/11234/1-3105) but some treebanks contain additional enhanced annotations. Moreover, not all of these additions became part of Universal Dependencies release 2.6 (http://hdl.handle.net/11234/1-3226), which makes the shared task data unique and worth a separate release to enable later comparison with new parsing algorithms. The package also contains a number of Perl and Python scripts that have been used to process the data during preparation and during the shared task. Finally, the package includes the official primary submission of each team participating in the shared task.
Abstract The authors seek to interpret the production/ reception mechanism of the joke through a Linguistic, Logical and Encyclopedic approach of the act of humor. The offer of murphology as a referential document for the argumentation of joke as a ludical act is representative in the theory of the acts of language especially through the social function of laughter. Each of Murphy’s Law consists of a dialogical de-doubling, with a transmitter provided with linguistic, rhetoric and encyclopedic “savoir” as well as persuasive power on the level of ennounciation and with a receiver (also possessing an interpretive “savoir-faire”, a quality that makes him/her) accede to the hidden meaning of the joke, often presented as a paradox set up by a disorienting isotopy. On the textual level, nevertheless, there is a complice and an innocent, object of the explicit signifiance, both being actors and engaging into various interpretative mechanisms of the meaning (fundamental vs contextual). The semiotical application of the joke is based on deconstruction, materialized in the opposition between behavioural norm and linguistical norm. The typology of jokes is offered by murphology, opera aperta, in the proper sense, once it receives in its corpus newly experienced laws.
Test score variability associated with characteristics of raters is considered as a construct-irrelevant variance in test scores. Several studies have tried to identify the effect of rater characteristics on test score variances in performance-based oral communication tests. However, little attention has been paid to the effect of raters’ familiarity with speech topics in an oral communication test. This study investigates how raters’ prior knowledge of test takers’ presentation topics affects rater severity in a teaching simulation test for international teaching assistants. Rating data of 162 test takers by 15 raters at a U.S. university were analysed by using a many-facet Rasch measurement (MFRM) analysis. A three-facet (i.e., examinee, rater, and topic familiarity) rating scale model with MFRM framework was fitted to estimate the magnitude of topic familiarity on rating severity. It was found that raters were harsher when they were less familiar with test takers’ speech topic. The difficulty difference between high (or mid) and low topic familiarity was 0.56 (or 0.53) in logits. There was found to be no interaction between raters’ topic familiarity and their background (NS vs NNS). The results of this study suggest that solid rater training is needed to reduce construct-irrelevant variances in test scores.
Linguistics cannot obviate the fact that, according to a vast majority of the population not well versed in linguistic issues, normativity constitutes the key aspect both of languages and of language. The high number of daily consultations regarding language registered by the Espanol al dia Service of the Real Academia Espanola serves as an example of the great importance that popular metalinguistics confers upon speaking well. No wonder. The linguistic norm is a changing one and linguistic tradition provides valuable evidence that today’s mistakes can become tomorrow’s norm. It is no easy task though to identify these good usage models and the way in which they are established. Furthermore, it is difficult to establish how the so-called normative or prescriptive grammars - inevitably linked to the tasks performed by the Academias de la Lengua Espanola - reconcile the variation that is inherent to every linguistic system with the codification of the standard variety or varieties mainly used in the formal, administrative, institutional and academic contexts of communicative distance.